LIBRARY OF
JOHN GALEN HOWARD
How TO FRAME A HOUSE
OR
By OWEN B. MAGININIS,
H
Author of "Bricklaying^" "Practical Centring'' "How to Join Mouldings'' Etc., Etc.
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE LATEST AND BEST METHODS OF LAYING OUT,
FRAMING AND RAISING TIMBER HOUSES ON THE BALLOON PRINCIPLE,
TOGETHER WITH A COMPLETE AND EASILY UNTERSTOOD
SYSTEM OF ROOF FRAMING, THE WHOLE MAKING
A Valuable and Indispensable Book for Carpenters, Builders, Foremen, Journeymen, Etc.
And Explained by numerous Large Engravings of Houses, Roofs, Etc.
PUBLISHED BY
OWEN B. MAGINNIS, NEW YORK
19O1 .
7"7/
2 3<9/
-
a FAC
7T S the best systems of framing timber dwellings now universal
* * throughout this country and Canada are contained in this book,
I need only say in placing the Sixth edition before the trade that it
contains the very latest and best methods of Laying out, Framing
and raising House Frames.
Every builder in the land will find it useful, in fact valuable, in
his practice, and every carpenter, necessary in his work. That it will
be appreciated is now without doubt, and i trust that it may prove a
means of making money and saving labor to every one who buys it .
My best thanks are due Mr. P. J. McGuire, editor of "The
Carpenter," for permission to reproduce "Koof Framing."
NEW YORK, 1901.
COPYRIGHTS 1891-1893.
CONTENTS.
PART I.— Balloon and Braced Frame Houses.
CHAPTER I. General Description of Balloon Frame?!, Framed Sills, and their construe.
tion.
CHAPTER II. First Floor Beams or Joists, Story Sections, Second Floor Beams,
Studding, Framing of Door and Window Openings, Wall Plates and
Roof Timbers.
CHAPTER 111. Laying Out and Working Balloon Frames, Girders, Sills, Posts and
Studding.
CHAPTER IV. Laying Out first and Second Floor Joists or Beams, Ceiling Joists and
Wall Plates.
CHAPTER V. Laying Out and Framing the Roof.
CHAPTER VI. Raising.
CHAPTER VII. Braced Frame Houses; How to Lay Out. Frame and Construct them.
CHAPTER VIII. How to Frame Out Bay Windows.
CHAPTER IX. The Construction of Framed Tenements and Factories.
CHAPTER X. How to Construct a Timber Framed Auditorium.
CHAPTER XL Tlie Construction of Reviewing Stands.
CHAPTER XII. How to Build a Timber Grain Elevator.
CHAPTER XI II. Framing Projecting Stories and Bay Windows, also General Hints.
CHAPTER XIV. How to Frame Cheap Timber Bridges for Roadways, etc.
CHAPTER XV. How to Frame a Log Cabin.
PART II.— How to Frame the Timbers for a Brick House.
Copyrighted 18 '6. by Owen B. Maginnis.
CHAPTER I. General Description, First Story Fireproof Floors, Wood Floor Beams
and Studding.
CHAPTER II. Second and Upper Story Beams, Partitions. Bridging and Angular
Framing.
CHAPTER III. Fireproofing Wood Floors, Partitions and Doors.
CHAPTER IV. Roofs, Bulkheads and Fronts.
CHAPTER V. Composite, or Wood and Iron Construction.
CHAPTER VI. Heavy Beams and Girders, and Raising same.
PART III.— Roof Framing.
CHAPTER 1. Simple Roofs.
CHAPTER II. Hip and Valley Roofs.
CHAPTER III. Roofs of Irregular Plan.
CHAPTER IV. Pyramidal Roofs.
CHAPTER V. Hexagonal Roofs.
CHAPTER VI. Conical or Circular Roofs.
CHAPTER VII. Framing, Sheeting and Slating an Eyebrow Window.
628586
FIG. i — SKELETON VIEW OF A BALLOON FRAME.
Balloon and Braced Frame Houses.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION— FRAMED SILLS AND THEIR
CONSTRUCTION.
AS the majority of houses which are
erected throughout the United States
and Canada are now built of wood
on the system which is best known as that
of " Balloon Framing," I think that some
practical information on this subject will
be appreciated. Except where very heavy
timbers are used, as in the construction of
frame factories, bains, sheds, etc., the old
tenon, mortise and pin method is now ob-
solete. The economical and excellent
structural methods of framing on the bal-
loon system have made it universally popu-
lar with all architects, builders and carpen-
ters. There has never yet been anything
really practical written about it, and I feel
assured that this book will be favorably re-
ceived. Some readers will, no doubt, feel
inclined to criticise many of the methods
published, and from them I would ask a
little consideration, as those which will be
illustrated are not my invention, but are in
vogue and daily application in many States
and localities. However, that readers in
general may gain information from them is
my great desire.
Balloon frames are probably termed thus
because of their extreme lightness and
rigidity, as they embody some of the char-
acteristics of the balloon, including sim-
plicity of construction and uniformity of
outline, but as Mr. Woodward says in his
useful little book, " Modern Homes," bas-
ket frames would be more appropriate
name for them, as their construciion par-
takes much of the basket pattern — that is
to say, they have upright stays or studs,
but wood instead of willow covering. Bal-
loon frames may be divided into three
principal component parts, consisting of
the floors, the walls and the roof.
Fig. i of the illustrations will give the
reader a fir^t conception of what is meant
by a balloon frame. Taking it for granted
that he is a practical and intelligent man
who wishes to understand the principal
parts of a house, he will readily perceive
the parts just mentioned. The floors are
made up of smaller pieces, or what is prac-
tically called timbers, and each of these
timbers has its own appellation, and serves
a useful purpose in the construction. A is
the cellar or main supporting girder, which
is placed in the cellar of the house in order
to sustain the weight of the floor joists, par-
titions, or other weights placed upon it. It
is either made up of one stick of timber or
built up in thicknesses, or several timbers
2x8, 2x10 or 2x12, joists spiked or bolted
together to form, as it were, one large tim-
ber 8xio or 8x12, as trie case may be. It
is supported in the centre of its length by
posts equally spaced between the walls, on
which the ends rest and in which they are
usually inserted from 6 to 9 inches. The
top edges are placed level with the top of
the foundation wall, set on the cellar wall
or underpinning. B represents the sills, of
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
which there are four for this building,
which has four sides. If a building have.,
more sides it must have a sill for each on
which to rest the posts and studding.
They are usually made of timbers measur-
ing 4x6 inches, and are halved together in
the corners in the manner shown at C. For
the sake of economy, however, some build-
ers prefer to build up their sills in two
thicknesses of two-inch plank, spiking them
thoroughly together and overlapping the
corners in the manner shown at Fig. 2.
This method is not as good as that de-
scribed before, but it is cheaper, as it saves
the cost of thick timbers and the labor of
halving the corners.
FIG. 2.
FIG. 3 — FRAMING OF SILLS.
Fig. 3 is another method of building
sills resorted to for the purpose of saving
labor. It will be noticed that the floor
beams play an important part in the con-
struction of this description of sill, and it is
therefore open to criticism. Referring again
to Fig. i, the first floor beams will be seen
at D D D. It will be noticed that they
rest on the cellar girder, A, are notched or
git ded over the sills, B B, and their bottom
edges rest on the stonework or the founda-
tion or cellar walls.
o 2. StCTlON OF SILL.
FIG. 4 — CHEAP SILLS.
At Fig. 4 I show two mire arrange-
ments of sills which are even cheaper than
the foregoing, inasmuch as they are made
up of ordinary floor timbers spiked togeth-
er, so as to form, as it were, box sills. For
very cheip work, as small houses or barns,
they can be readily and economically in
troduced. No. 2 is especially suitable for
barns, as it does away with much timber
and labor, but it must be remembered
that incomplete sills of this description
or character should never be introduced
when a few dollars can be spared to put in
one of a better and more sui able form. Any
sensible mind will readily understand that
such sills must necessarily follow the settle-
ment of the stone underpinning, and should
this be uneven, the whole superstructure
will, as a matter of consequence, strain and
become injured. Some architects in the
West, probably from a desire to cheapen
their productions, promote such construc-
tion as this, but they are certainly not fit,
and are better not put in.
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
In proceeding, I think it best to give the
reader, especially the beginner and young
mechanic, a general description of the prin-
cipal component parts of a simple house
framed on the balloon system. Then by
chapters to instruct him practically in the
various practical means and methods which
must be followed when building houses of
this class. I therefore most respectfully
ask those who wish to apply them in ac-
tual practice to become thoroughly ac-
quainted with those important instruments
or tools absolutely necessary to proceed
accurately, namely : The two-foot rule,
ten-foot pole, and steel square. The last
combines a'most all three.
CHAPTER II.
FIRST FLOOR BEAMS OR JOISTS — STORY
SECTIONS — SECOND FLOOR BEAMS —
STUDDING — FRAMING OF DOOR AND
WINDOW OPENINGS — WALL PLATES AND
ROOF TIMBERS.
The isometrical drawing, Fig. I, shows
how the joists are 'spaced at equal distance
apart, generally 14 inches between the faces
or 1 6 inches from centre to centre for
ordinary dwelling houses, and on them the
flooring laid. These beams are framed or
sawn out to fit over the sill their own
thickness, and to rest on the stone- work
of the cellar wall or underpinning, also to
FIG. 5 — Two MOKE EXAMPLES OF SILL CONSTRUCTION.
To illustrate, B is a 2x8 placed on the
wall, and A is a 2x6 spiked fast to it ; C is
a 2x4 studding spliced firmly to A and B ;
D is spiked in the same manner, the end
and side sills are b^th made the same way
and spiked well at the corners, making a
first-class box sill, and one that can be re-
lied on in a cyclone.
rest on or be supported by the cellar girder ;
from this it will be seen that the cellar
girder is set fair with the top of the wall.
H, H, H, H are the posts or four main
angle uprights of the frame, and, for reasons
which I can hardly explain, are made in
various ways in different States. Those I
have drawn in this sketch are 4" x6 " tim-
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
CUCH BOARDING
STCRV SfCTION
FIG 6 — SECTION OF WALL.
bers, and this is the method usually fol-
lowed in the Eastern States. In the West,
however, the posts are made of two 2x4,
spiked together so as to form one stick or
timber, but the solid posts are preferable.
These are simply cut to the length required,
with the top and bottom ends perfectly
square, so that they may be nailed solidly
on the sill at the bottom and support the
wall plate properly at the top. E, E are
the girt strips or, as they are better known,
" ribbons," on which the second floor joists
or beams rest. They are gained into the
posts and studding on the right and left
side walls of the frame. A study of the
story section, Fig. 6, will give the student
a more comprehensive explanation of the
framing of the floor timbers and gaining of
the posts and studding, than would be con-
veyed by Fig. i.
FIG. 7 — ELEVATION OF A STUD WALL
WITH BRACE.
The second floor joists should be notched
out to sit down on the ribbon in the way
shown in Figs. I, 6 and 14, to hold the
side walls together. The wall studs are
invariably spaced 16 inches between cen-
tres; many readers who are young at the
business may ask why ? The reason is a
very simple one. It is because all plasterers'
laths are cut or sawn to a standard length,
viz. : 4 feet long, and it is for the purpose
of overlapping and breaking the joints on
the lath that they are thus spaced. Of
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
FIG. 8 — ROOF TIMBERS SET UP.
course it will be easily seen that three
times sixteen inches make four feet, or the
standard length of a plasterer's lath, and
one lath will therefore nail on four stud-
ding and cover three sixteen inch lengths.
Openings for windows are obtained in
the manner represented on the left in the
front of Fig. i. For extra strength, and
by reason of the weakening by introducing
the openings, it is the custom to double up
the studding on each side of them, and
this is done as follows : A single stud, as
G, is first inserted and nailed in on each
side of the opening. Then the top and
bottom headers, as M and N;are cut to the
necessary length and placed in, bevelled
and nailed. The top or upper header is
generally doubled, but the bottom one need
not necessarily be so, though I have drawn
it doubled here as it is often done in good
work. When these are in- a short stud is
cut in to form the double thickness. In
the better class of framed houses the
doubled studs are put in ftrll length from
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
FIG. 9 — FLOOR JOISTS, STUDS AND RAFTERS.
sill to plate, as shown on the left side of
the opening, Fig. I. This method is shown
in Fig. 7, which is an inside view of the
stud wall standing upright, with the girt
strip or ribbon gained in and nailed with a
brace cut in to stay the building. The
second floor joists are spaced out the same
distance between centres as those forming
the first floor below — that is, 16 inches be-
tween centres. J, J shows them in position
on the ribbon, Fig. i. Door openings like-
wise have the studding doubled both on
outside and inside walls, and when the
openings are over four feet wide the head-
ers have a trussing arrangement placed
over them to sustain the
weight above, see Fig. 12.
I, I, I, I are the four wall
plates, which, being sup-
ported by the upright stud-
ding forming the framework
of the wal Is, carry the rafters
which make up the framing
of the roof. L. L are the
"Hip" or angle rafters.
Outside angle rafters are
termed " Hips ! " Inside
angle rafters " Valleys."
As this building has four
outside angles, it has,
therefore, four hip rafters.
K denote > the "Jack" raft-
ers or those which aie cut
and nailed to the hip rafters.
Fig. 8 represents an ordi-
nary peak or ridge roof on
a common oblong plan.
A, A are the plates as be-
fore. B, B, the common
rafters ; C, the ridge. In
order to prevent the plates
from being thrust out by
the lateral pressure of the
rafters, a collar beam or tie
beam is inserted, see Fig.
1 6, thus making the roof a stable, solid
construction.
Fig. 9 will convey to the reader or stu-
dent how the side of a balloon frame is put
together. The first floor beams are 2"x8",
gained out and set on the ribbon which is
let into the studding its full thickness,
and nailed fast to each stud ; on the
upper ends the wall plate rests, and is
nailed thereto, being made of two thick-
nesses of 2"x4" joist. The other top or
attic floor beams, which are also tie beams,
2x6, are set and spaced off on this, also the
roof timbers or rafters of 2"x4" scantling.
From this drawing the construction of the
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
H
se :tion, Fig. 6, will be readily understood.
As the timbers of balloon frames are held
together entirely by nails, I would ask
readers to note the nailing shown in these
sketches, for they represent how the tim-
bers are fastened together in order to form
a comp'ete frame.
CHAPTER III.
LAYING OUT AND WORKING BALLOON
FRAMES, GIRDERS, SILLS, POSTS AND
STUDDING.
In the first and second chapters I have
endeavored to explain to the student the
principal timbers forming the balloon frame
of a simple house, built on a square plan,
or on a square foundation. In this chapter
the student or beginner will be shown the
proper mechanical way to proceed in lay-
ing out and framing the individual pieces
so that they will fit when " Raised," or are
placed in their permanent position.
LAYING OUT AND WORKING BALLOON
FRAMES.
GIRDERS. — Cellar girders to support first
floor beams should be laid out to the neat
length of the walls, between which they
will rest, ; nd have not less than 6" of
bearing added on to each end to go into
the wall. If the girder be so long that it
must be made up of two sticks or timbers,
then they must be separately laid out and
squared at the abutting ends, and they
must be accurately measured with the ten-
foot pole, so that the joint will come ex-
actly in the centre of the pier or post,
according as the plans and specifications
state. It is not usual to halve cellar girders
together. But should the specification call
for this, then they must be carefully meas-
ured to allow for the halving, and still
retain the required length from end to
end. See Fig. 10. To lay them out they
should be placed on saw horses at full
length and accurately marked and squared
with the steel square and lead pencil, and
afterwards sawn to the lay out marks. See
Fig. 14.
LAYING OUT SILLS. — Sills of balloon
frames can be laid out by placing each
piece singly on horses, and after determin-
ing the neat length to lay out the corners
for halving and the spacing of the floor
posts and wall studding. The whole
length is measured with the ten-foot pole,
which should always be used in measuring
distances over ten-feet long. The tteel
square or two-foot rule is applied in laying
off the joists or studding, and the corners
are marked for halving with the steel
square across the grain, and the gauge
with it. I would impress upon all carpen-
ters the necessity for placing the two sticks
end to end, with the length of the halve
overlapping when they are laying out long
sills 30 o or 49' o" and to uce the ten-foot
pole in measuring. This lessens the possi-
bility of mistakes occurring. They might
be laid either on the horses or directly on
the cellar wall, and I think the latter is pre-
ferable, because, if the foundation wall be
correctly built to the size called for, the sill
must come right ; besides, the sills must
suit the wall.
Supposing, for example, that the side
wall of a building is 39 feet, then two 20
foot sticks should be procured and placed
side by side on the horses or wall, one
overlapping the other 8 inches to form the
halved joint, which can be laid out by
squaring across the top edges of both at
once. This will allow two clear inches on
ea-h end for squaring.
Carpenters should take care not to have
a straight joint come over a cellar window,
as there is always the liability of its coming
apart, or sagging down under the weight
of the studding above. All sills will in-
12
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
variably require to be placed rounding edge
u/>.
Sills of hexagonal or octagonal plan are
to be laid down according to the plan on
the template made for the cellar wall and
be halved at the corners.
At Fig. 1 1 is shown the first floor
framing plan of a small house with a bay
window, which has the sill 6x8 inch tim-
ber, the floor beams being gained into
them. If sills are made in two thicknesses
just as the studs and posts will be. This
can either be made out of a piece of 7/% in.
pine or a 2"x4" stud, and it must be laid
out for the gain for the girt strip or ribbon
and squared at the top and bottom ends.
The pattern should be perfectly straight
on edge and be out of wind.
When a g od pattern is made the posts
are first placed on the saw horses and laid
out. The ends are also sawed off square
and the gain is sawed and chiseled out for
FIG. 10 — VIEW OF CELLAR WALLS, PIER GIRDER AND SILLS.
of 2 inch plank as is done in some parts of
the country, each thickness should over-
lap, both at the corners and turning points.
POSTS AND STUDDING — Some carpenters
and builders form their corner posts in
balloon frames of two 2"x4" joists spiked
together to make 4"x/|." sticks, as it were.
Some use 4"x4" scantling, and others
make them of one stick of4"x6." The
posts and studding can be laid out from
one pattern, which should be first framed
the strip. Next the wall studs are placed
on their edges on the saw horses in quan-
tities of 6, 8 or 10 at a time and the edges
squared over from the pattern. Careful
carpenters use ,two patterns, placing one
each side of a number of joists, when laid
on the horses, and then squared across
from end to end, or from gain to gain,
thus making sure lhat they will be ex-
actly right. Studding should be laid out
on the rounding edge, so that the hollow
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HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
edge will come on the outside or face side
of the wall. When the edges are marked
the faces are squared over. Some prefer
to lay the pattern on each piece singly,
and mark the face of stud at once, thus
avoiding the necessity of squaring over the
edge. This practice undoubtedly saves
time, but the sawing must be done by
good workmen or the joints won't be square.
The reason I siy this is, that though it
may seem very easy to s^w a piece of stuff,
2 in. thick, square, without a guide line, I
find few who can do it exactly. The ribbon
or girt strip is a strip of i"x6" stuff; so
the grain or notch must measure this size.
o
Should the second floor joists be notched
down on the upper edge of the ribbon,
then the top edge of the ribbon must be
kept up higher, the depth of the notch, to
get the proper height of ceiling. I notice
that it is becoming a common practice to
omit notching the floor beams, and I can-
not condemn such omission too strongly,
even though the joists are nailed to each
stud, because the notch prevents the bot-
tom edges of the beams from slipping on
the ribbon and ties the opposite walls to-
gether. Only the two side walls or those
at right angles to the front will require to
be gained for the ribbon, as the floor joist
run across the front and rear walls. Stud-
ding at window openings should invariably
be doubled and carefully placed that the
casings and siding can be nailed solid on
them, at the same time giving room
enough in the opening to allow for ample
pocket room for the sash weights; 2^
inches will be room enough. If 4"x6"
timbers are used for the corner posts, then
they must be laid out in pairs, notching
them two inches from the edge, and the
width of the ribbon ; I might say here,
that it is the best practice to place 4x6
timbers with the six inch face to the side
wall, thus giving the 2 inch difference of
material to nail on the ribbon, and after-
wards the plasterer's lath.
If the wall plates be the same height all
round the building, then the outside wall
studding may all be cut to the same
length or one pattern ; but should the
plans and elevations call for several differ-
ent heights of wall plates, carpenters should
note them carefully, lay out and saw the
studding to the exact length required for
each height.
Cross studding or headers under window
sills may be single pieces of wall studding,
but those on top, both over window and
door frames, are better doubled. Some
double the side studding of the openings,
the whole way from sill to plate, but a more
economical method which might be advan-
tageously followed, is as described in the
first chapter.
Door or window openings of four feet or
over in width should always have two thick-
nesses of studding, scantling, forming the
head, to resist the pressure from above.
Openings of 5 feet span or over must be
trussed, something after the manner shown
on Fi^. 1 1, to resist the beams above bend-
o "
ing the upper plates downwards.
CHAPTER IV.
FIRST AND SECOND FLOOR JOISTS OR BEAMS
— CEILING JOISTS AND BEAMS AND WALL
PLATES.
FIRST FLOOR JOISTS OR BEAMS. — The
laying put and fra-ning of floor-beams, is a
comparatively simple task, yet, like all
other mechanical operations, it requires
system and exactness.
A pattern is first made by which all the
others are marked, so the student or car-
penter should take the width between the
sills across the house with the 10 foot pole,
and add on the width of the sill, thus :
Supposing the house to be 20 feet wide,
i6
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
FIG. 13 — FKAMING OF A WELL HOLE.
then allowing I inch on each side for the
rough boarding, the outside width would
be 19* — 10". Now, if we deduct the
width of the sills, say 12", or 6" for each
side, then the width between the sills will
be 1 8' — 10". The pattern is then laid
out on the bottom edge 18' — 10" and 5" is
allowed on each end over the dimension to
rest on the sill. The pattern is next sawn,
on each end 4"x5 ^", measuring from the
bottom. If a 10" joist is used this will give
6" above the sill and the 4" below it will
make the bottom edge of the joist come
level with the bottom face of the sill, so
that like the sill itself it will rest on the
cellar foundation wall. The rounding or
cambered edge of each beam must be kept
to the top in order that the floor may have
a slightly curved surface or crown, and
allow it to settle straight. The reader will,
of course, readily perceive that were the
hollow edges kept up the floor would be
also hollow, and when it settled it would
become much more so and render it both
unsightly and unsafe.
At Fig. 13 I have drawn a view of a
second floor stair-opening framed with
"headers" "trimmers'' and "tail beams."
This opening, technically called a " Well
hole" measures 4 feet wide by 7' — o " long
or 4 fr. x 7 ft. The face of the header
comes 4' — o" from the inside line of the
wall, so that in laying out mortises in the
trimmer-beams for this header 4' — o"
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
must be measured off from the face of the
wall, allowing for the bearing on the sill or
ribbon. (I show this framing as for the
second story, because the same rule is
applicable for the first story.)
From the squared line 7' — o" must be
measured off and another line squared
over for the face of the opposite header.
Back of these lines the mortises must be
laid out in the manner represented at B,
Fig. 13. A is the neutral axis line or
breaking line of the timber. Every mor-
tise must be made above the line as repre
sented on the stick marked "header," like-
wise every tenon, as drawn on the tenon
framing to the left The reason that the
framing must be done in this way is, that
this work, the most important thing being
care and accuracy in laying out the measure-
ments and framing. The two inch blade
of a steel square, and in fact the whole
square is most handy in laying out these
beams. The method of spiking the joists
together is shown by the nail heads.
SECOND FLOOR BEAMS OR JOISTS. — The
laying out and framing of the second tier
of beams is different from the first, for the
reason that they rest on the ribbon or girt
strip let into the inside edges of the side
wall studding as I described in '• Posts and
Studding." Their full length will be equal
to the full width of the house as below, less
y2" the ends are kept short at each end to
keep them back from the outside edges of
FIG. 14 — LAYING OUT BEAMS WITH THE STEEL SQUARE.
the neutral axis, or more practically the
breaking line of every beam is in the cen-
tre of its width, as shown by the dotted
line on the face of the far header ; there-
fore all mortises or holes made in beams
must be above the line so as to avoid les-
sening its strength.
At B the student will perceive how the
tenon is framed out to fit into the mortise.
The tenon is usually the square of the
thickness of the stuff or 2"x2". Here
also will be seen how the end of a tail
beam is framed, in a similar way as the
header. There is nothing very difficult in
the studding. The bottom edges are
notched on the line of the inside edges of
the studding, i" wide and i" deep to fit
over the upper edges of the ribbon. These
beams can also be laid out from a pattern.
Fig. 14 shows one gain cut out, also how
the steel square is applied and held, when
laying out timbers.
One special point which must be noted
in connection with laying out floor joists
or beams, is to always place the pattern
fair with the top or rounding edge of the
timber and to mark the notches and gains
at an equal distance from this top edge.
i8
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
This is done to make the top edges all
level so that the floor may have a level
surface when the beams are placed, and
the flooring laid. It would be a safer
method to nail a fence on the top edge of
the pattern.
CEILING JOISTS AND BEAMS. — These
simply rest on the wall plates and will
only require to be cut the same length as
the floor beams except when the corners
on the ends are likely to stick up above
the top edges of rafters. Then the corners
must be sawn off to leave the rafters clear
for boarding.
WALL PLATES. — Except the structures
of very large dimensions the wall plates of
nearly all balloon frame houses built now
are formed of 2"x4" or 2"x6" scantling in
two thicknesses or doubled.
They are solidly joined at all inside and
outside corners by being overlapped, and
where there is a long side on the building,
the joints are well broken to give extra
strength. The 4" or 6" underside is laid
out or spaced across for each stud to cor-
omy, as it saves the over length of stud-
ding which would be cut off each gable
from the plate to the ridge were the pieces
put in from the sill to the rafter. Those
wall plates on the gable ends should there-
fore be laid out, cut and framed before
raising, as this tends to hold the walls
together.
When the plates are level all round, or
rather the walls all the same height, then
they will all be set on studding of equal
length, but as plans frequently call for
plates of different levels and lengths, they
must be very carefully studied and meas-
ured and clearly understood before the
carpenter can lay out a stick of timber.
CHAPTER V.
LAYING OUT AND FRAMING ROOF.
THE ROOF. — The best constructional au-
thorities have written and published, both
in books and technical journals, very clear
and accurate information, showing the
proper methods for obtaining the lengths
FIG. 1 5 — A PATTEKN RAFTER.
respond with the sill at the bottom so that
when the top ends of the whole number of
studs are nailed to the spaced marks they
will stand plumb and straight. Some car-
penters prefer to lay out the plate from a
rod after it is raised. Either of these ways
is good, but there are some who would
space them out with a two-foot rule as they
are being nailed in, a method which I think
is very liable to cause an error or get them
crooked.
When gables occur on the ends, it is
proper to return the plates across them, as
at Fig. 8. This is largely done for econ-
of hip and valley rafters, jacks, etc., and
as all carpenters should be familiar with
some of them they should study the articles
on Roof Framing further on. In the
meantime I will refrain from touching this
subject, and try to show the reader some
points hitherto untouched in regard to lay-
ing them out.
Rafters should in all cases be marked off
by a pattern (See Fig. I 5), laid out by a
good method to the pitch, which the plan
and section denote. The pattern can either
be a piece of rafter scantling, or a piece of
seven-eighths inch stuff, but it must be
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
'9
framed square, that is, the cuts at the peak
and bottom must be sawn perfectly square
to the sides. This will give a reversible
pattern or one that can be marked from
either side or face. It must also have its
top edge perfectly straight.
The rule regarding floor beams, about
keeping their rounding or crowning edges
uppermost; also applies to rafters.
There should never be less than two or
three inches bearing on the wall plate on
the bottom or level cut, in order to permit
of a solid nailing into th~ plate, and thus do
put in position all bearing timbers, round-
ing edge up.
Hip rafters should be backed. I am
aware that it is not now customary to do
this, still it can be very cheaply done by
nailing a beveled strip planed to the angle
necessary on the top edge of the hip. This
would be a better practice than simply
nailing the roof boards on the arises of the
hips, as is now done. I would now draw
the attention of those carpenters who one
day contemplate being builders to a point
in roof framing generally unnoticed. It is
FIG. 1 6 — ELEVATION OF A COLLAR BEAM ROOF.
away with the liability of its slipping off the
plate. Fig. 16 is an elevation of rafters
with a collar beam, which is inserted to
prevent long rafters from bending. This
will require to be framed on the ground,
and is sometimes halved out to fit under
the bottom edges of the rafters or nailed
on flat. The measurements should be care-
fully taken from the plans so as to give the
attic head room called for.
Hip and valley rafters will likewise need
to be as above; in fact the student should
make it a rule to always lay out frame, and
usual to order hip and valley rafters to have
them the same width or, more prop-
erly, the same depth as the common and
jack rafters, and the thickest three inches or
one inch thicker than the others. This
might not exactly be called an error, but it
is scarcely right, which readers will under-
stand on reading the following. Hip and
valley rafters are those that form the inter-
sections of the roof planes and they usually
have their seats on an angle contained
within a right angle. For this reason, then,
the top cuts on all jack rafters which fit
20
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
against, and nail to, the sides of the hip or
valley will be longer or rather deeper than
the depth of those they are placed against,
and this difference will increase according
as the pitch of the roof is increased. It is
therefore the duty of every roof framer to
see that the hips and valleys are obtained
wide enough to receive the whole width of
the top cut on the jack rafters and give a
solid nailing. To my mind it denotes very
poor calculation to see one-third of the cut
of the jacks hanging below the bottom
this matter must also be attended to in re-
gard to ridges, which should, in all cases,
be at least equal in width to the top cut of
the common rafters which abut against
it. They should be perfectly straight or
slightly crowning on the top edge, but
never hollow. They should also be laid
out on one side with the spacing of the
rafters. Fig. 17 will give the student a
clearer understanding of what is written
above, as it shows a projected view of the
hips, ridge jacks, rafters and plates. When
FIG. 17 — WALL PLATES, HIPS, JACKS AND COMMON RAFTERS IN POSITION.
edge of the hip rafter, and I have known
architects who have compelled builders to
remove the insufficient timbers and to re-
place them with others of adequate propor-
tions.
I know there are some who will argue
that the hip will be sufficiently strong sup-
ported by two sets of jacks without being
particular about the joints. To these I
would answer that the hip supports two
planes and that half or two-thirds of a joint
is only half or two-thirds as good as a whole
joint. For roofs over one-third pitch the
angle rafter should therefore be deepened ;
very long ridges are inserted, necessitating
two pieces, end to end, to make up the
whole length, the joint should be placed in
the space between two rafters to allow a
cleat or tie piece to be screwed or nailed
across it to hold the pieces strongly to-
gether. Another important point is to lay
out the ridge that the rafters will abut
against each other, and not at one side or
other which would tend to bend the ridge
after the rafters are placed in position.
They may either be one-inch or two-inch
stuff, as desired, but on light frame dwell-
ings one-inch stuff will be suitable.
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE
21
J
EIG. 1 8 — PROJECTION OF A BALLOON FRAME FLOOR.
CHAPTER VI.
RAISING.
There is no part of the construction of a
frame building which requires more care
or accuracy than the raising of the fr-ime.
I therefore trust that my remarks on this
subject will be carefully read, as they will
be found very applicable in practice.
PLACING CELLAR GIRDERS.— These will
require to be lifted into the place on top of
the piers built for them in the cellar, or set
perfectly level and straight from end to end.
Some prefer to give their girders a slight
crown of say I inch in the entire length,
and it is a wise plan, because the piers gen-
erally settle more than the outside walls.
When there are posts instead of brick piers
used to support the girder, the best method
is to temporarily sustain the girder by up-
rights made of pieces of 2x4 joists resting
on blocks on the ground below. When
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSK.
the superstructure is
raised these can be
knocked out and
the permanent posts
placed, resting their
bottom ends on a
broad flat stone, to
form a base or foun-
dation footing.
If the supporting
posts and piers be not
placed or built until
after the building is
erected, then carpen-
ters should exercise
good judgment when
jacking the girders
up, to place them un-
der it and not raise
them so much as to
strain the building,
and it is always de-
sirable to obtain the
crown mentioned be-
fore. The practice of
temporarily shoring
the girders, and not
placing the permanent
supports until after
the superstructure is finished, is favored by
good builders, and it would be well for
carpenters to know just how it should be
done.
SETTING THE SILL. — After the girder is
in position, the sills are placed on top of
the cellar walls, rounding side up and hol-
low side out, and are very carefully fitted
together at the joints and leve'ed through-
out. The last operation can either be done
by a sight level or by following the simple
method I am now about to describe.
Place 7/Q inch blocks at intervening dis-
tances on the length of each side, also one
at either end, and set a long parallel
straight-edge on them, also set a true level
FIG. 19 — A FRAMED INSIDE PARTITION.
on the upper jointed edge of the stiaight-
edge. The sill must be wedged up, or
lowered down until the air bubble in the
level tube is exactly in the centre, and each
piece must also be wedged up or lowered
till the blocks all touch the bottom edge of
the straight-edge. In all cases the whole
length of the sill should bear solidly on
the stonework, and it should either be
bedded in mortar or made solid with chip
pieces of slate, stone wedges or furrings,
and these should not be inserted less than
two feet apart.
Sills are generally kept back fa or I
inch from the face of the stonework, to
make the sheathing come flush with it, and
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
allow the water table to project the thick-
ness of itself (usually I 1-3 or I ^ inch) to
keep the water off the stone.
Sills must be taken out of wind, that is
to say, they must be level all round, so
that when the carpenter sights them across
with his eye (the other being closed), the
surfaces will show as one line.
All sill joists will require to be toe-nailed
or spiked to draw them closer together,
SETTING FIRST FLOOR BEAMS. — This im-
portant job is done by expeiienced carpen-
ters in the following manner :
The stairs and chimneys being conduct-
ors, or rather passing up from one floor to
the next one above, and having timbers
framed to form the openings, or, as they
are technically called, "wells," the header
and trimmer beams round them must be
placed first. The proper method to follow
FIG. 20 — FRAMING OF A PARTITION BETWEEN BEAMS.
and the running joints should be nailed
dovetail fashion. When sills are made up
of two thicknesses of plank, as they some-
times are, they will need to be solidly
spiked together, to form one, with dove-
tailed nails.
As some of my readers may not clearly
understand what is meant by " dovetailing "
nails, I will here state that a carpenter dove-
tails nails when he drives two with the
points inclining to or from each other, so
that they form, as it were, a " dovetail."
then is, to place and nail one trimmer beam
first, exactly in position on the sill, and then
to insert its fellow opposite it, loose. When
this is done the framed header may have its
tenons placed in the mortises in the pair of
trimmers, and the loose trimmer made par-
allel to the one that is nailed, that is, it
must be the same distance apart at the sill
end as the length of the header When
two headers are framed in, then it will only
be necessary to straighten the trimmers
from end to end. The trimmers will like-
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
wise require to be set square to the sills.
After the headers are set, they and the
trimmers should be solidly spiked together,
keeping the headers square with the trim-
mers.
The " tail " beams or joists are next
placed, the framed ends, with the tenons,
being slipped into the mortises in the
header, and there solidly spiked to keep
them in place.
This practice of first placing all trimmer
and header beams for stairs, chimneys,
hearths, or other openings which are
framed around, should always be adh -red
to, because the openings are then sure to
be in their proper position as denoted on
the first floor plan.
Having these set, the remaining single
joists are carried in and placed on the sills,
spacing them out at 12 or 16 inches be-
tween centres, as called for. The quickest
way to space them is either to u-e a twc-
foot rule and (when two inch joists are in-
serted) to allow 10 inches between for 12-
inch centres, and pinches between for 16-
inch centres.
The student will, I trust, understand that
when two inches more is added on, that is,
one inch on each side, the centres of the
timbers will be just 12 or 16 inches, as the
case may be. When all the floor timbers
are in and toenailed to the sills, a strip is
nailed across the top edges to keep them
from being overturned. This strip should
be kept back at least 1 2 inches from the
end, in order that it may not interfere with
the wall posts or studding when raising.
A temporary floor must now be laid on
the beams, by placing sheathing board
across them, and they should be so placed
that there may be no traps in the floor. By
traps, is meant the ends of the boards
which project over one beam and do not
rest on the next, so that when a man stands
on the end it is a trap which, being pressed
downwards by his weight, lets him fall be-
tween the beams. In every case the end
of each board should rest on a joist or beam
to prevent this occurring. Fig. 18 repre-
sents a section of a balloon frame floor
with the bridging in position, also the lath
and flooring.
RAISING THE OUTSIDE WALLS. — This, the
next operation, is performed very simply.
If the wall be not too long, or not more
than 25 feet, proceed to spike the wall
plates on the top ends of the corner posts,
also nail the ends of the girt strip, or rib-
bon, square in the jambs in the posts. Next
place and nail one or two intervening studs
on the plate and ribbon, to the marks on
them which have been previously laid out.
This can be done on the temporary floor
laid on the first floor beams.
A man is now stationed at each stud and
post, and the construction raised, and braces
are nailed on each stud and post to prevent
falling. These are nailed as high up as a
man can reach, in order that they may hold
it firmly.
The next thing is to plumb and brace the
wall, which is done by one man holding a
plumb rule against the surface of a post or
stud and watching the bob, while another
stands ready to nail the bottom end of the
brace into the sill or beam, whenever the
bob indicates that it is exactly perpendicu-
lar. The rule must be applied to both
sides of the posts, to insure their being
plumb both ways, and two braces will be
needed, or one on each of the sills which
form a corner.
If the wall plate be laid out the same
length as the sill, then plumbing one post
will plumb both, that is for one wall, but
both posts must be plumbed separately for
the end walls.
Supposing the side walls to be raised,
the intervening studding may be inserted,
but where window and door openings
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
occur the stud-
ding on each side
of them must be
doubled. This
may be done
either by putting
them in full length
reaching from sill
to plate, or by
placing single
studs full length,
and after nailing
in the cross head-
ers to cut in
cripple studs the
length of the win-
dow opening.
For the sake of
economy the last
method is most
popular. The
side studs, form-
ing openings,
must likewise be
plumbed.
Where there
are stretches of
wall between win-
dows and doors
over four feet in
length, the stud-
ding will need to
be spaced 16
inches between
centres, or 16 inches from the inside of one
stud to the outside of the next, which, it
will readily be understood, is the same
thing. Carpenters call this spacing from
" in to out," and follow it for joists, studding
and rafters.
If the intended house will be situated in a
locality where it may be exposed to much
strain, through heavy wind pressure,it would
be well to cut in an angular brace, abutting
against the corner post, under the ribbon,
PLATE
• STUDDING
FIG. 21 Illustrates the frame of a small framed cottage, of one story, with
the ceiling beams and rafters raised, and one side partly sheeted or rough
boarded. Upper headers are doubled in windows.
and fitted down on the sill abutting against
a windo'w stud. This will stiffen the frame,
and is a practice largely followed along the
Atlantic coast, where the dwellings are fre-
quently subject to the pressure of heavy
gales. See Fig. 7.
Another thing, always essential, is to
properly truss over window and door open-
ings, which can either be spanned by a
4x6-inch timber, or the weight above can
be carried over to the studs by angle
26
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
braces. In any case, where four or five
studding, supporting a plate and timbers,
occur over a window, precaution should be
taken to resist the downward pressure in
the above way.
When the sidevvalls are raised and
braced, the second floor or tier of beams or
joists are raised and fixed in position, rest-
ing on the ribbon, and holding the walls
together by the notch which I described in
the chapter on Framing. It is best to nail
each joist against each wall stud when
possible, as it enables the carpenter to
make the construction more solid by nail-
ing them to each stud as they occur.
The second floor beams are placed on
the ribbon in a similar manner, being set
so that the notch or gain in their bottom
edges drops on the edge of the ribbon.
All those beams which come against studs
should be spiked solidly thereto. A tem-
porary floor is laid as below to enable the
men to walk about and work on.
The third floor or attic timbers must rest
upon the wall plate, and can be set either
before the walls are sheathed or after, but
it is usual to set them before commencing
to board the sides.
Bridging should always be inserted and
the top ends nailed solidly into the floor
beams before the floors are laid. The bot-
tom ends can be nailed after they are laid,
thus stiffening and raising up the floor.
The writer prefers to nail the bridging top
and bottom before laying the flooring,
thus preventing sagging under the super-
added weight of the floor, and he con-
demns the practice of laying the floor be-
fore the partitions are set. Herewith are
presented two sketches showing the proper
way to construct and bridge inside parti-
tions. Fig. 19 is where the partition
crosses the beams at right angles and Fig.
20 where it runs in the same direction as
the beams. It will be noticed in the latter
that blocks have to be set up to receive the
top piece and that a strip is nailed on
the top of the plate to which the ends
of the laths are nailed for plastering
The heights between the floors are usu-
ally taken with two rods, sliding them
apart till the ends meet floor and ceiling.
Not more than y^ of an inch over length
should be allowed, and measurements for
partition studding should be taken with
the top plate on the bottom plate, meas-
uring with the rods up. Partition lines
should be laid down with a chalk line.
RAISING THE ROOF. — When the top
floor or attic beams are placed, the tempo-
rary floor described above must be laid
across them. This can be made up of the
boards to be used in covering the roof,
usually of spruce or hemlock. A peak
scaffold must next be constructed, formed
out of two uprights, 2x4 studding, and
bearers and braces of strips or boards. The
height can be taken with a ten-foot pole,
by measuring off the height from the floor
to the ridge, and then deducting the height
of a man who will stand on it; thus, if the
height to the peak be twelve feet, then the
scaffold should be about six feet high. It
need not be more than three feet wide, or
two boards in width, so that one man may
stand and walk on it, and it should be well
braced. When the scaffold is ready the
rafters may be raised in the following
manner :
Commencing at the gable end, a pair of
rafters one on each side of the ridge are
set up, with their top cuts abutting, and
the bottoms on the plates may be nailed
solidly to each plate. Another pair pre
set up similarly on the other gable, or near
the valley if there be one on the roof. The
ridge is next lifted up and set in between
the peak cuts, and there solidly nailed.
These can now be braced by nailing on a
board reaching from the rafter on the gable
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
to the plate. This will be enough at first.
The intervening rafters, spaced sixteen
inches or twelve inches on centres, as de-
sired, set up in place, care being taken to
keep the ridge straight in nailing Hips,
valleys and jacks are next set up and the
whole roof well braced diagonally with
several boards to prevent it being over-
turned by the wind.
Collar beams may be inserted either be-
fore or a*ter the roof is covered, but the
FIG. 22 — PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF A BRACED FRAME.
safest method is to cut and nail them in
before the roof boards are nailed on.
The projecting ends of the attic floor
beams are now sawed off and the roof is
ready for cornice and covering.
Much the same rule will apply to the
framing of porches and piazzas with their
roofs ; that is, the plate is nailed on first,
then the beims, the floor is next laid and
the posts and roof are then set up.
Porch and piazza floor beams should be
laid parallel to the front of the house and
pitched down and out about half an n.ch
in every twelve inches, in order that the
joints of the flooring max be in the line of
the water running off the house. This will
give three inches pitch in a 6-foot porch,
enough to keep it always dry and prevent
rot Porch floor beams should either rest
on brick piers or good posts, and have
sufficient footing to prevent settlement.
S )me builders set inside partitions at
the sam^ time as the outside walls, before
covering in, but this hinders
free movement on the floor
Ahen working, handling tim-
bers, etc. Inside partitions
should always be set first on
the first floor, and then on the
se_ond floor, and so on up,
thus maintaining the levelness
of each. Great care must be
exercised to have all door and
window studs perfectly plumb,
and headers perfectly level.
All nailing should be done
without spliiting the timber,
nor should the hammer head
be driven into the wood any
more than necessary. This
should be especially guarded
against in toenailing, as too
often the end of the rafter,
stud, etc., is broken off and the
nails have no hold whatever.
Long beams, hips and valley rafters must
be kept straight from end to end by sight-
ing them through with the eye, likewise
all long studding. This is essential for the
reason that the spacing must be accurate
for the plasterer's lath, flooring, boarding,
etc.
Balloon framed houses are a better job
when sheathed or boarded diagonally. It
is a little more expensive in the labor, but
stiffens the whole construction.
Thirty and twenty-penny spikes, and
28
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
4*6"
ten-penny cut nails or wire nails are the and the parts are of the following sizes and
best for nailing together the timbers of thus framed : The sill, generally a 4x6"
balloon framed houses. or 6x8" timber is halved together at the
A ladder for climbing floors can be
readily made up of two sound 2"x4" joists
and ^}"x2" cleats or strips nailed on the
edges of the joists with eight-penny n ils.
Steps to be spaced 12 inches apart.
NAILS FOR FLOORING AND ROOFING.
The following table will give carpenters
the proper size of nails to order for any
job. The table is for ordinary widths from
3-inch to 7-inch boards :
Thickness
TABLE.
No. to
of floor .
Size.
Length.
pound.
•J inch
8 penny
2£ inches
92
1£ inches
10-penny
3 inches
60
If inches
12-penny
3J inches
44
If inches
16-penny
3£ inches
32
2 inches
16-penny
3| inches
32
2J inches
20-penny
4 inches
24
2£ inches
20-penny
4 inches
24
2J inches
20-penny
4 inches
24
CHAPTER VII.
BRACED FRAME HOUSES — How TO LAY
OUT, FRAME AND CONSTRUCT THEM.
Frame houses constructed on the braced
system differ from those of the balloon type
in the fact that the timbers with which the
whole frame is made up are framed or
mortised and tenoned together so as to be
solidly and securely fastened.
In this respect houses constructed in
this manner differ from those constructed
on the balloon principle as in the latter the
pieces are simply held together by nails
while in the former they are mortised,
tenoned and pinned. Braced frames are
the best constructed for frame houses. By
reason of its great expense this system is
not so popular as the balloon principle, yet
as it is sometimes adopted in good or large
work every carpenter should have a knowl-
edge of it.
Fig. 22 is a skeleton or perspective view
of the side walls of a braced frame house
FIG. 23 — FRAMING OF POST AND SILL.
corners and mortised out, for the foot of
the posts where they occur, whether at the
corners or other places on the sill. In-
termediate posts are often draw pinned as
FIG. 24 — FRAMING OF GIRT AND BRACE.
shown in the engraving, but this is scarcely
necessary as the weight of the post is in
itself sufficient to keep the tenon in the
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
29
mortise. Fig. 23 will give a clear concep-
tion of the method of framing the foot of a
post into the sill. The tenon is about 2
inches square and 2 inches deep and the
mortise is the same size, 2^ inches deep.
The principal object of the tenon is to pre-
vent the post slipping off the sill.
Referring again to Fig. 22 it will be seen
FIG. 25 — SIDE VIEW OF BRACED FRAME.
that the first floor beams rest on the sill
being suppoited in the centre of the width
of the house by a girder or heavy timber
6xio" or 8x12" according to the width.
These first floor beams are usually 2x10"
or 2x8" timber and either rest directly on
the sill or are halved out to rest on both
sill and stonework of foundation. Here I
have for simplicity drawn them resting en-
tirely on the sill.
The second floor beams are supported
by a timber termed " a girt " or intertie,
which is mortised and tenoned into the post
in the manner shown at Fig. 24, on the top
of the engiaving. Here also will be seen
FIG. 26.
the method of framing the end of the
braces into the posts, sills, girts, wall plates,
etc., ir> order to obtain a rigid construction.
The mortise is cut in square but by reason
FIG. 27.
of the brace being on the angle it is neces-
sary that one side be on the angle as shown
and the gain to receive the thrust of the
brace will require to be set on in the way
represented above the dotted line in the en-
larged engraving of the framed end of the
brace.
All posts, girts and braces and plates are
draw-bored after being framed to receive
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
the pins. An inch auger bit is generally
used.
By "draw-boring" is meant that the hole
in the tenon is generally nearer to the
shoulder of the piece tenoned than the hole
in the mortise, in order that the taper pin
may draw the shoulder closely up against
the piece which has the mortise. Pins
should be I inch diameter and made of oak
for a spruce or yellow pine frame.
Studding in braced frames is sometimes
tenoned into mortises in sill plates, girts,
etc., but the time it costs to pursue this
method is fast doing away with it and they
are nowadays mostly cut in " barefoot" or
without tenons, having only a squared butt
end
At Fig. 25 will be seen a side view of a
braced frame showing the main parts as at
Fig. 22, also the studding set at the frame
round a door and window, the plates set
on, and part of the roof raised.
The plates are 4x4" stuff halved to
gether at the corners and mortised on the
under side to receive the top ends of the
posts. The positions of the timbers will
be readily comprehended from the engrav-
FIG. 28 — PLAN.
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
ings, Figs. 25 and 26, as they are very clear,
and by a comparison with Fig. 22 will be
easily reproduced in actual work.
When laying out braced frames care
should be taken to lay out and frame all
the sills, posts, girts, braces, studs, plates,
etc., the exact length; they should also be
very carefully mortised, tenoned and fitted
together before the pairing. When framing
the post the mortises for the girts must be
placed one underneath the othei. Fig. 26,
being an enlarged view of the framing, will
illustrate how this is done and it will be
seen in some of the preceding engravings.
It will also be noticed that the shoulder of
the girt is gained into the post. This is
often done in high class work though it is
scarcely necessary, because the square
shoulder with the braces and studding
under any girt is sufficiently strong with-
out gaining it in.
I cannot lay too much stress on the
necessity for very carefully measuring all
the pieces, especially the braces, which may
either be laid down to scale, or full size, or
laid out with the steel square.
When raising, the cellar girders and sills
are first set on the stone foundation, then
the sides are set up, the posts being first
placed and braced with boards, then the
side girts are inserted in the mortises and
pinned ; the end girts come next and after
this the studding on first story (if cut in bare-
foot). If not, the whole side framing, sill,
girt, and all may be put together, pinned
and raised as one " bent " or piece of fram-
ing. The wall plates and second story
studding may be set up after the second
floor beams are set and a temporary floor
laid on them to walk on.
Fig. 27 will show the method to be fol-
lowed in framing round a chimney breast,
with a header, tail beams and trimmers.
In the foregoing engraving readers will
obtiin full information in regard to the
manner of placing a framing together, posts
and girts in barn or other heavy framing,
so as to obtain great strength.
CHAPTER VIII.
How TO FRAME OUT A BAY WINDOW ON
THE FIRST OR SECOND STORIES.
This is a problem in the construction of
frame dwellings which sometimes occurs
and taxes the ingenuity of many carpen-
ters, so in this chapter I am pleased to
offer some explanation of the methods of
doing it.
Usually, bay windows, either of square or
octagonal plan, are on the first story, built
with the rest of the frame, and having the
sill resting on a stone or brick foundation,
the sill being on a level with the main sill
of the house.
Sometimes this does not occur and the
architect may either frame out a bay win-
dow on the first story or place it on the
second story. Often two windows are in-
troduced, as will be seen by referring to
the illustrations.
As to the methods of framii.g out these
windows I have shown two at Fig. 28. On
the front or right side the bay window de-
mands special framing; because it cannot
be supported on the floor beams or joists
in the way by which the side window is
obtained. On the side the floor timbers
are simply allowed to project out beyond
the face of the wall, the projection neces-
sary to support the octagonal form shown,
and the plate upon which rests the window
studs necessary for the bay are nailed on
top of them. The plan, Fig. 28, will give
the readers a clear conception of this con-
struction.
For the window on the front a very dif-
ferent form of framing prevails. Here the
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
fact that the bay must be supported by
floor beams at right angles to the regu-
lar floor beams of the house compels the
carpenter to use his ingenuity in supporting
the window safely, and I therefore put for-
ward illustrated to the right of the plan,
Fig. 28 and the elevation Fig. 29. The
principle adopted is that of cantilever and is
simple in construction and quickly framed.
PI,
WifJjc
WijOuov
FIG. 29 — ELEVATION.
It will be noticed, then, that the two cen-
tral supporting beams rest on a plate placed
under them which is in turn directly car-
ried by the first story wall studding, and
that they are mortised and tenoned into
one of the floor beams (the third from the
wall), thus making the floor beams balance,
as it were, the weight of the bay window
timbers resting on it outside the face of the
wall. In a similar manner the two outside
projecting and supporting beams are mor-
tised and tenoned into the second beam
from the wall and that the second beam is
mortised and tenoned into the central beam
on each opposite side, by this means form-
ing a perfect counter-poise. Short pieces
of beam stuff are cut in between the sup-
porting beams, on which to nail the floor-
ing, also on the angle of the bays. The
mitre cuts of the octagon may be found by
using the figures 7
and 17 on the steel
square or by any
of the simple
methods in every-
day use.
Some frame rs
prefer to double
up the third or
fourth floor timber
and frame all the
supporting timbers
into them, but I
am opposed to this
plan as so much
mortising weakens
the beam and does
not distribute the
strains.
The following
figures are used
in order to find
mitres on the steel
square for laying
out bay windows :
12" and 12 =Square Mitre, or 45°
7 "4 = Triangle " " equilateral
10 =Pentagon " "5-sidedfig.
7 = Hexagon " " 6 "
6 ^Heptagon
7X=Octagon
9 =Nonagon
3 =Decagon
SHEATHING. — As soon
studs are in portion, the building should
be sheathed with inch boards nailed diagon-
4
12*4
ig'
22
" " 7 " "
" "8 " "
" " 9 "
" "10 "
as the exterior
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
33
ally so as to give additional bracing to the
studs.
The roof should be sheathed with i ^
inch boards to allow a better hold for the
shingle or slate nails.
SHINGLING. — When the cornice is set and
the gutters on, the roof is sheathed, the
valleys should be tinned and the flashings
put around the chimneys, the tin being first
carefully painted on both sides. The roof,
with the exception of the valleys, is also
often covered with felt or tarred paper, and
the shingles are then put on, commencing
at the eaves. Each shingle should be laid
with three laps, according to the weather,
5,6 or 7 inches as may be required, and
each should be nailed with two galvanized
iron nails, one on each edge.
CLAPBOARDING. — When the roof is com-
pleted the window and door frames are in-
serted, and the casings or architraves nailed
on. The building is then covered with pre-
pared paper and is ready for clapboarding.
Before commencing to put on the clap-
boards, the water table is put in place, and
it should lap i y2 inches over the foundation
wall on its lower edge, and be cut on its
upper edge so as to allow the clapboards
to form a tight joint.
' The clapboards are usually ^ inch thick,
the width varying from 5 to 6 inches. The
clapboards should lap one inch.
Care must be taken to have a tight joint
between the clapboards and the door and
window casings. Strips of zinc are some-
times laid at junction of clapboards and
casings, and this is particularly desirable
at the top of a casing.
GENERAL HINTS. — If wooden posts are
used to support a girder in a cellar, they
should rest on a stone at least 8 inches
above the cellar floor, otherwise the lower
end is liable to rot. Cast iron columns
are better than wooden posts ; brick piers
are best.
The sill being near the ground, and usu-
ally resting on a wall of masonry, which
attracts moisture, is liable to rot. Care
should therefore be taken to have the top
of the founda'ion wall at least 18 inches
above the surface of the ground, not only
to insure a dry wall for the sill to rest
upon, but to prevent water from working
under it during a rain. Decaying sills are
a fruitful source of trouble and expense in
wooden buildings.
After placing the sill, lay out upon it
with a pencil the position of all doors and
windows, and then of each ^tud.
For spans of not more than 16 feet,
2x10, or 3x9 inch joists are sufficient. A
wider span in the first floor can generally
be reduced by a girder in the cellar.
When the floor beams carry a partition,
it is customary to put in a girder, or two
beams are laid together. Another plan is
to place two beams six inches from cen-
tres ; this arrangement gives not only a
bearing for the studs, but an opportunity
for solid nailing of the flooring.
No beam should be placed within eight
inches of a flue. A space of two- inches
should also be left between a girder and
the chimney breast.
The main partitions upon which the
beams rest in a house when the beams do
not extend in one length across the build-
ins, should be set at the same time as the
O '
exterior studding.
Such partitions should rest on a wall of
brick or stone, or upon a girder.
Stud partitions should never be used in
a cellar. The studs are liable to rot and
to harbor vermin.
No beams should be placed on a parti-
tion which has not direct support from the
foundation, unless the partition itself is
trussed.
In all partitions carrying beams, or wher-
ever it is possible, the studs should rest
34
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
on 2x4 inch plates, and not on the beams.
The object of this is to avoid settlement
caused by shrinkage. Timber shrinks
crosswise, not lengthwise. The shrinkage
of a 2-inch plate would be but one-fourth
of the shrinkage of a beam 8 inches deep.
In a building of several stories this be-
come a serious difference and would cause
the doors to settle and the plaster to crack.
Besides the main partitions there are
cross partitions which of necessity rest on
the floor beams, as the rooms in the upper
stories are usually of different dimensions
from those below. It is sometimes possi-
ble to truss these partitions so as to bring
the strain on the exterior studs and the
main partitions.
CHAPTER IX.
THE CONSTRUCTION OF FRAMED TENE-
MENTS AND FACTORIES.
There is no class of constructive carpen-
try which requires more care, skill and
calculation than the houses or edifices in
which a number of persons live, work or
congregate, as in this class strength and
safety are the most important factors to be
considered.
This is especially the case with framed
houses which are built to accommodate
three or more families, or as they are
commonly called "tenements " and factories
of three, four or more stories in height,
usually running from 35 to 60 feet to cor-
nice, and as these high dimensions neces-
sitate doubling and splicing of vertical sup-
porting posts and other bearing timbers,
special attention must be given to the
framing so as to insure absolute strength
and safety.
To illustrate this I have in this article
taken as an example for illustration, the
practical framing of four four story timber
tenements, to be built on a street with a
hill or steep grade. The pitch is
4 feet in 25 feet or 16 feet drop in the
whole 100 foot plot covered by the four
houses. Each house measures 25 feet
front by 75 feet deep, and being each on a
lot 100 feet deep, it will be seen there is a
25-foot jard left in the rear which is
requisite for light and ventilation. Fig. 30
FIG. 30. — PLAN OF STORE FLOOR.
is a plan of one house showing the interior
light shafts, which in the case of framed
tenements are better laid out square or at
right angles as seen in the engraving, in
order that the cost be reduced as low as
possible, as obtuse and acute angular fram-
ing is very costly, not alone in the labor
of the framing, but also in the increased cost
of the extra material For this reason it
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
35
is always most economical to arrange the
framing with square corners, as shown at
Fig. 30. In building the stone foundations
the first house, to the left, or that on
the bottom, has the side, rear and front
walls level, so that the sills will be level all
around. House No. 2 has its right-hand
foundation party wall 4 feet higher, and
FJG. 31. — SPLICING POSTS.
house No. 3 has its right party wall 4 feet
higher still, and house No. 4 has its wall 4
feet still higher, thus compensating for the
pitch of the street, which will be seen by a
study of Fig 3 3, which is an elevation of the
raised and framed principal timbers of the
front of the houses. But the pitch of the
street will affect the framing, and unless
the right-hand stone foundation wall be
built up to the level of each house to the
right, it will be necessary to change the
sill into a girt or tie, and to mortise and
tenon this girt into the front, rear and in-
termediate posts to properly support the
first story floor beams which rest on them,
as seen in this figure Similarly the front
and rear sills must be framed on the left-
hand end with a mortise and tenon, so as
to tie the whole framed construction to-
gether. From the above it will be seen
that much study must be devoted to the
proper laying out of this style of buildings
by the carpenter in order that the timbers
may fit when raised.
Now as to the height, which is of course
outside the usual limit of one, two and
three-story cottages and the like. As the
corner and inside party and gable wall
posts are so high that it would not be pos-
sible to obiain single timbers long enough
to make up the whole height, it will be
necessary to join two or more sticks end
to end, and to brace them in such a man-
ner, that there will be no danger of their
springing or buckling. For the best form
of vertical joint for this I would refer the
reader to sketch shown in Fig. 31 That
splice on the left is to my mind the most
economical and strongest form which can
FJG. 32. — FRAMING OF BRACE.
be used in this class of work, for the rea-
son that it consumes only the extra length
of the joint on the timber, and is easily
ripped down from the end with the saw,
and involves no chisel work whatever, if
done by a careful hand. This joint is
bolted together, and is stronger than that
seen on the right, which will require more
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
V
rv
\
\
\
v
\
V
f \
V
V
s
\
\
V /
\
V
\
i 1
\ <
\
:
r
v
f
^
r >
I
iV
»s.
/
O
<
w
J
W
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
37
cutting, and though it has more bearing
surface, is not so good or cheap as the
other.
As to the proper bracing of long posts, for
this the reader would be wise to follow the
simple corner method, which is clearly
illustrated in Fig. 32, with the tenon
omitted. I am entirely opposed to putting
tenons and mortises on these braces, and,
though the method is old, it is nevertheless
bad, because the mortising of the girt
weakens it and forms a receptacle for dry
rot and insects when the timbers shrink
away from each other and open the joint.
Therefore a simple scarf with a spiked joint
is the best, and the braces are so easy to
slip in and nail in place, that the frame is
held rigid and immovable, and none of the
timbers are weakened in the framing.
This form of building may also be framed
and raised on the balloon system, but if
this be done I would recommend that at
least girts and posts be used to carry the
floor beams, instead of a ribbon, which is a
weak construction; in fact, the frame should
be half frame and half balloon, so as to make
the building stiff enough to withstand wind
pressure, the weight of snow or any ordi-
nary strain.
Fig. 34 is an elevation of a straight gable,
and showing the braces, and this angular
framing should be as far as possible in-
troduced when the absence of windows
permits it. If possible, also, these high
framed houses should be sheathed diag-
onally. Sill and girts might also be
braced from piers and wall for additional
strength.
V X
»^i' » n B n \\ \\ n y/fr1
v
\
ifVSji
V-
~\
11 IhMl II 11 II II
\
•^n n n n H ir~TP^ri~
^
^
V^M[ 1| II l| ll |l ~TT7xifri
V
a x e> &/*~ i-
FIG. 34. — FRAMING OF GABLES AND PARTY WALLS.
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
CHAPTER X.
How TO CONSTRUCT A FRAMED AUDI-
TORIUM.
In the last chapter I treated on the de-
tailed construction of framed tenement
dwellings ; in this I propose to explain
fully the method of framing large assem-
bly buildings, as adopted in one of the
best known timber auditoriums in the
United States, the place where many
famous pugilistic encounters have taken
place. I refer to the building called the
Coney Island Athletic Club.
This immense framed structure was orig-
inally designed and built for a skating
rink at the time of the skating craze in
1884, and measured 125 feet in width by
300 feet in length over all. The building
consists of three parts or sections on plan,
namely, a main floor or exhibition part 75
feet in width and two aisles or wings, re-
served for galleries for spectators, each 25
feet wide.
The construction mainly consisted of a
series of brick piers and timber 13 inch
posts, spaced 15 feet apart and sunk to
rest on concrete bases, as seen in the trans-
verse section of the building Fig. 36, each
capped with an 8-inch blue stone. On
these, heavy 12x1 4-inch yellow pine longi-
tudinal girders were set ; the outside
lines of girders allowing the ends of the
1 2x1 2-inch square vertical columns to rest
directly on the centers o-f the cap stones,
the girders being tied together by an in-
side 3 -inch band solidly spiked to the
posts and girders as seen in Fig 36. On
these girders the floor beams were placed,
spaced 16 inches apart and overlapped and
spiked together at the girders
When the main supporting columns were
framed and raised, they were plumbed and
strongly braced to the floor beams with
2-inch plank braces, and thus held until
the braces and wall plates were framed,
raised and set. Here I might state that
the raising was all done with gin poles,
one being a light lo-inch stick of yellow
pine timber, used for the post and timbers,
and the other, used to raise the trusses,
being an immense round stick of Canadian
spruce 60 feet long, 10 inches at the top
and 1 6 inches at the butt. Both were
stayed with rope guys and rigged with four
sheaved blocks and tackles, thus giving
great lifting power. The last pole was
equipped with a drum and horse gear.
When the plates were being framed and set,
a special gang of men was engaged in
framing and putting together the trusses,
the design of which is readily seen at Fig.
35. They were of the Howe class, modified
to give a pitch to the roof, and consisted
of a lower chord or tie beam 75 feet long,
«
made up of two 4O-foot 8xi 2-inch yellow
pine timbers spliced at the center as at
Fig. 3 and strengthened by having a 2-inch
oak plate bolted on each side to prevent
its breaking or springing sideways. Into
the upper edge of this beam was framed
the principal rafter A, Fig. 35, the diagonal
braces and struts all being fitted with
tenons and the beams mortised to receive
them. Each end of each diagonal brace
abutted at the upper and lower chordal
beams, and each brace was coped out to fit
over the 2-inch wrought iron suspension tie
rods, which tightened up the entire truss.
The trusses were braced with long diag-
onal corner braces to the posts, thus stiffen-
ing the building laterally, directly under
each truss, and carrying the pressure down
to each post and thence to the pent or lean
to shed roofs of the wings or aisles, which
being constructed of main posts opposite
the columns which are braced laterally from
the rafters overhead, and longitudinally
from the plate to the post, thus making it
a strong and rigid structure.
I
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
39
On top of the upper chord of the prin-
cipal trusses short 5 -foot uprights, resting
on a longitudinal plate were raised so as
to give the light from above and permit of
pivoted sashes being set in the sides for
ventilation. These were set in frames
nailed to studding and were set close to-
gether so as to give plenty of air space.
b
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
FIG. 36.
Or
FIG. 37-
FIG. 38.
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
CHAPTER XL
THE CONSTRUCTION OF REVIEWING STANDS
AS USED IN THE DEWEV PARADE IN NEW
YORK.
I know of no greater tribute to the skill,
care, ability, and trustworthiness of Ameri
can carpenters than that evinced in the
FIG. 39. — GENERAL VIEW OF FRAMING
OF DEWEY ARCH.
construction of the triumphal arch and
tremendous number of reviewing stands
erected along Riverside Drive, Seventy-
second Street, Eighth Avenue, Fifty-ninth
Street, and Fifth Avenue for reviewing the
parade in which Admiral Dewey was the
central figure. There were over 1,000 re-
viewing stands and platforms built to ac-
commodate 2,000,000 persons, and these
were framed, raised, braced and nailed in
such a way by the union carpenters of
New York, that there was not one of them
which strained, fell, or caused accident.
In order to show the carpenters of the
entire country some of the constructive de-
tails of the caipenter work done during
this celebration, we will commence with
the timberwork of the Dewey triumphal
arch, erected on Fifth Avenue at Madison
Square.
This splendid piece cf framed and nailed
carpentry was built up of various sizes of
timbers, running from 8x8 inches to T/%
inch scantling, and was carried up on the
diagonal system of bracing as illustrated at
Fig. 39, which is a perspective view of the
timber framing before the staff was put on.
(As this illustration is made from memory,
I have purposely omitted many timbers so
as not to confuse the drawing.) The
abutting joints of each length necessary to
make the full height of 60 feet were cleated
FIG. 40. — SECTION OF FRAMING OF A
20-FooT STAND.
together, nailed and bolted, aftei \\ards
being braced with diagonal braces reversed
across on the diagonal on the insides and
outsides of the uprights. For the arches
intersecting east and west intermediate
uprights were inserted, these also being
diagonally braced vertically, and horizontal
diagonal bracing from corner to corner was
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
used to stiffen the whole construction lat-
erally. This unusual job of extemporized
framing was done without accident, and
made so strong and rigid that it sustains
the weight of the staff of which the cover-
ing and modeled work is composed with-
out a sign of strain or fracture. I might
state here that the plaster work and staff
FlG. 41 — SECTION OF A 25-FOOT STAND.
was spread on plaster boards and wire lath
which were solidly nailed to the timber
work underneath.
The construction of the pedestals of the
single and double colums, forming the
approach to the arch, were a comparatively
simple matter, as the columns were made
up of poles, sunk in the street, and around
these platforms of timber were built to the
desired height, being of 2-inch plank car-
ried on 3 feet x 6 inch or other uprights
and braced diagonally, all bridging, cleat?,
etc., being cut in and fitted where required
by the sculptors and their assistants, thus
forming a rigid groundwork for the artistic
work, which so embellished the most im-
portant part of the demonstration.
Now as to the construction of the re-
viewing stands, which were erected for the
purpose of giving a better opportunity to
see the parade, which consisted not only of
the hero of Manila and many representative
citizens, but also 30,000 troops. As this
immense body of men occupied five hours
in passing a given point, it necessarily fol-
lowed that seating accommodation should
be provided for hundreds of thousands of
persons. To do this required millions of
feet of lumber and the united labor of 5,000
carpenters and 10,000 laborers. In order
to give some idea of the immense amount
of seats built, I would state that on River-
side Drive on ten blocks there were 30,000
seats built, which were almost entirely oc-
cupied, and the capacity of the stands along
the route varied from ten persons to 5,000
persons. From these figures some idea of
the vast amount of work may be esti-
m ited, especially when it is remembered
that the route was over six miles long, and
therefore I say great credit is due to those
who did the work and built the stands.
As to their construction, as far as possi-
ble the diagonal system of bracing was
adhered to, the uprights being cut harefoot
top and bottom, and butted together at the
FiGS. 42 AND 43.
joints and secured with cleats, well spiked,
to prevent their buckling or spreading.
At Figs. 40 and 4 1 sections of the methods
are represented, and here will be noticed
the great value of this form of bracing, as
by its aid comparatively light uprights may
be made capable of sustaining a very heavy
weight, provided the possibility of shearing
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
43
or buckling be reduced to a minimum.
Shearing can only be prevented by having
a sufficient area of timber and of a nature
sufficiently tough to fully resist the com-
pressive force Buckling is prevented by
cross ties, braces, etc, or the tensile strength
of the timber itself, and the height of the
post, and superincumbent weight regulates
this.
FIG. 44 — BRACKETS NAILED ON.
The majority of the reviewing stands
from 6 to 25 feet in height were built of
4x6 inch and 6x6 inch spruce timbers,
spaced about 6 feet on centres and braced
about 6 feet in the height. The sloping
bearers varied from 3x6-inch to 3xio-inch,
also of spruce, and braces from 2x6, 2x4,
2x2, 1x6, 1x7, 1x2 and so on as the tim-
ber came, so;ne of it being second-hand
timber. Apropos of second hand timber,
I would say that its extreme hardness and
brittleness lessens its value as a bearing
timber, in addition to its great liability to
split when being nailed, which latter pecu-
liarity I noticed existant in much of the
hemlock used.
The brackets were mostly nailed on the
top edges of the sloping bearers, as at
Figs. 42 and 43, though some, those of I ^
inch hemlock, were spiked on the sides in
the way seen at Fig. 44 and fitted with a
small upright. Many of the stands had
chairs on the platforms which averaged 4
feet in width, and again many had simple
benches consisting of 9 inch T/% boards on
1 6 inch uprights, well braced, and nailed
with wire nails, which nails were almost
universally used in the stands, the reason
of which, I since learned from the builders,
was to save the timber as much as possible,
as these nails pull out easily with the
hammer.
CHAPTER XII.
How TO BUILD A GKAIN ELEVATOR.
Grain elevators are, as far as I know,
of a composite construction, namely, of
L
n n
DDDDD
FJG. 45. — ELEVATION OF AN ELEVATOR.
masonry, iron, and wood. The usual
method of construction followed is, as in
Fig. 45, to make the footings and founda-
tions concrete or stone, the first and second
stories of brick, as A, as these are the dis-
tributing floors, and the superstructure of
timber. For the better elucidation of this
I would refer the reader to the sketches
44
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
which accompany this description, as they
are from the actual work as I have seen it
built.
As the inquirer will perceive, the second
section or story is built of timber, so as to
form bins, or boxes, for the purpose of
receiving and storing the different kinds of
grain ; and in order to construct the bins a
very unique yet simple form of construc-
tion is followed out. Fig. 46 is a cross-
section taken through B, the second story,
or bins, and fully illustrates the method.
It consists of starting the bottom of 2-
inch or 3 -inch layers of plank timber, 14
or 1 6 inches wide, on top of the first story
masonry and gradually stepping back in
i -inch steps till the thickness of the wall,
6 or 8 inches, is reached, crossing all joints
intersecting where possible and scattering
all joints so as to obtain the greatest pos-
sible strength. • All nails are long enough
to dovetail into three thicknesses of tim-
ber, and steel wire. Corners are over-
lapped. All this will be clearly under-
FIG. 46 — METHOD OF BUILDING BINS i>v OVERLAPPING AND CROSSING JOINTS
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
45
stood by a close study of Fig. 46, which is
an isometrically projected drawing of one
corner of the bin section, showing the
laminated, or built-up, method of construct-
ing the bins. On account of the ever-vary-
ing grains, breaking of joints, and multitu-
dinous quantity of nails (dovetailed), this
form of building bins is of enormous
strength, and can be carried to a great
height, and makes a very strong, capable
FIG. 47 — PLAN OR SECTION.
louse. The amount of cutting and fitting
id nailing involved is tremendous, but
the bins are of great strength and content,
;ach of those represented here containing
dmost 7,000 cubic feet. When the bin
section is built up to a height of 75 feet,
bhe upper portion C is framed and raised
)f wood on a braced-frame principle, so as
to be light and strong. The whole should
>e covered with slate, iron, or tin.
CHAPTER XIII.
FRAMING PROJECTING STORIES AND BAY
WINDOWS; ALSO GENERAL HINTS.
This problem in house framing is one
fhich is coming up continuously in the
instruction of small frame cottages and
rill be found useful by carpenters who do
lis class of work. The Queen Anne
style of shingled house especially, as in
their design, is the most effective.
Referring to Fig. 48 of the sketches,
readers will comprehend what is meant by
a projecting story, and will see that it is
the pushing out of the front of the second
story beyond the front of the first story
below ; also by setting out the third story
or gable beyond the second story, thus
getting a very effective front. This con-
struction should be done carefully and with
a close attention to the strains which will
be permanently placed upon the timbers,
so that there may be no straining of the
timbers and consequent cracking of the
plaster, so that I will now proceed to give
the best form of construction to be fol-
lowed. Fig. 49 is a section of the three
stories of the house from the sill to the
ridge showing the constructive timbers,
and it will be seen that as the greatest
strain comes on the first story, the timbers
of that story must be of increased strength
in order to safely support the superstruc-
ture above. This will include the posts,
studding, floor, beams and plates. For an
ordinary two-story framed cottage the
posts will do at 4 inches x 6 inches, the
studding at 4 inches x 4 inches for the
first story, and 3 inches x 4 inches for the
second story; the second story floor beams
will do at 3 inches x 10 inches and the
roof at 2 inches x 8 inches. All these
timbers will require to be carefully and
accurately framed and braced to make sure
that all support the framing above, and
prevent that lateral movement which is
only too common in modern balloon
frames, so that the lower stories must be
braced at angles to stiffen it thoroughly if
possible. It is best to frame the angles
with a mortise and tenon brace ; but should
the expense prevent this the balloon fram-
ing and braces which I illustrate in Fig. 48
will be sufficient; when the studs are thick
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
FIG. 48 — FRONT VIEW OF FRAMING.
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
47
as 4 inches x 4 inches or 4 inches x 6
inches it will not be necessary to double
them at doors and windows nor need the
headers be doubled.
When framing over openings it is essen-
tial that the plates supporting the first and
second story floor beams will be required
" to be trussed '," and the strain carried di-
rectly over to the upright studs without
resting on the cripples or headers. This
trussing must be inserted over large door
openings, and should a bay window occur,
a lattice girder truss from 12 inches to 18
inches deep will require to be placed under
the floor beams to prevent any subsidence
of the plates.
Regarding the use of a ribbon, which
some favor in projecting out second stories,
I would say that it can be used with per-
fect safety if of not less than 10 inches in
depth, but it is not an economical method
of construction, for the reason of too much
cutting of the timber and consequent
waste. The methods illustrated in Figs.
48 and 49 carrying a separate plate carrying
;ach tier of floor beams is the simplest and
easiest raised. It will be noticed in these
figures that the corner posts and studding
of the sidewalls are carried up so as to
leave the top of the plate of the sidewalls
level with the top edge of the ceiling beams.
Including these suggestions pertaining to
projecting stories, I might say that this in-
formation was requested from me some
time since, and that it is only now that I
im able to present it to my readers.
DIFFERENT METHODS OF BRACING PAR-
TITIONS.— After careful observations of
many partitions, I am satisfied that the
average carpenter and builder is not really
aware of their true structural value. Most
mechanics regard a partition simply as a
wood and plaster wall, for separating rooms
and supporting the floor beams above, and
though these are their principal objects,
they should always be used and built as a
part of the structure of the house to in-
crease its statical strength. To this end I
1
M
#'*'
-r i
FIG. 49— SECTION OF STORIES.
have deemed it advisable to set before my
readers a few suggestions regarding these
important details of building construction.
As I have stated in previous articles, the
48
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
usual method of erecting partitions is to
set the studs 12 or 19 inches apart from
center to center, setting all studs plumb,
then to cut in horizontal bridging as illus-
trated in sketch, Fig. 50; this bridging is
sometimes slightly pitched as shown by the
dotted lines, so that it may tighten in case
\
s
\
\
FIG. 50. — PARTITION BRACED DIAGONALLY.
there should be any settlement, and it is very
little better than the horizontal bridging.
In frame houses I would recommend that
cross partitions in the center of the house
be "braced" and not "bridged" in order
to stiffen the side wall and prevent the
building straining, or any liability of its
being strained by any outside forces such
FIG. 51. — BRACING A LONG PARTITION.
as wind pressure, etc. This "bracing"
can be very economically done by the
method illustrated in Fig. 50 ; as will be
seen, it consists of simply cutting in a line
of bridging from corner to corner diagon-
ally, each piece being driven down until it
tightens.
Fig. 5 i represents a method which the
writer has successfully followed in bracing
a very long partition, and it will be noticed
here that the bridging is cut in between
the studs, each piece being nailed in hori-
zontally. The method is, however, some-
what faulty, as the studs are liable to be
bucked or sprung when nailing in the
bridging, for this reason I would suggest
that the curved or arched bridging shown
in the engraving Fig. 52 be adopted for
long partitions, especially if it supports
floor beams in the center of a span or be a
"fore and aft" partition. This form of
introducing the arch formed of small pieces
of studding is, as far as I know, not usual
and has been followed by the writer in
many jobs, with the result that each parti-
pIG 52. — ARCHED OR CURVED BRIDGING.
tion was not alone self-sustaining on each
story, but was also rigid.
When partitions are built of studs set
on their flat, they should have more bridg-
ing than those set the 4 inch way.
Partitions should, if possible, be filled in
with some incombustible material to render
them both sound and fireproof.
FRAMING WOODEN WALLS FOR WINDOW
OPENINGS. — Herewith I illustrate by two
sketches the methods to be followed in
framing wooden walls for window open-
ings. Fig. 53 is the plan and on it will be
seen the different details of construction oi
the window frame, including the weight
pocket, which should ordinarily be 2^
inches from the back of the pulley stile to
HOW-TO FRAME A HOUSE.
49
the face of the stud to permit the weights
to pass freely up and down. The top
header is usually doubled and the construc-
tion is the same. as shown on Fig. 54. Fig.
FIG. 53—
SECTION OF SILL, ETC.
FIG 54—
TOP HEADERS.
53 is the bottom header with the sill stool
and apron, and the construction is clearly
shown and easily understood by a close
FIG. 5 5 — WINDOW FRAME.
study of the pieces, and Fig. 54 is the top
header referred to above. About I inch
is allowed to permit the frame to slide into
its place.
CHAPTER XIV.
How TO FRAME CHEAP TIMBER BRIDGES
FOR ROADWAYS, ETC.
The construction of good, cheap bridges
for spanning small rivers, valleys, ravines
and such, on country roads, necessitates
some care and originality ; and I have found
that this class of work, though not very
frequent, still occurs in many localities,
also cheap timber roofs. For the purpose
therefore of explaining the best and cheap-
est form I will present in this article several
methods of simple trussing which carpen-
ters will find useful. For very short bridge
spans of from 4 to 6 feet, the best form is
a simple series of 3 or 4 heavy yellow pine
or spruce timbers spaced so as to come
directly under the wheels, and large enough
to sustain a weight of from two to five tons
in the centre of their bearing. The width
of the roadway for two lines of vehicles,
allowing room to pass easily, should be
from 1 6 to 1 8 feet, with 4 feet for side-
walks, so that it will be necessary to lay
out a cross section of the prospective
bridge, place the stringers or longitudinal
bearing timbers in such positions as they
will best resist the movable load. Accord-
ing to the best engineering authorities the
moving load provided for should be, for
spans under 100 feet, 70 to 100 pounds
per square foot; for spans from 100 to 200
feet, 50 to 80 pounds per square foot; for
spans over 200 feet, 40 to 65 pounds per
square foot.
At Fig. 56 readers will see a cross section
of a highway bridge spanning a creek about
ten feet wide. There are four principal
stringers under the roadway which are
trussed with the centre post and i-inch
wrought iron suspension rod in the man-
ner shown in the under side of the engrav-
ing. This suspension rod passes through
the ends of the stringer and is tightened
50 HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
with plates, washers and nuts. As will side of the bridge. At Figs. 57 and 58, I
be seen there is four feet allowed on each show longitudinal and transverse sections
-* M— J+--+
n
FIG. 56 — SECTION OF A BRIDGE.
side for sidewalks. The stringers nieas- of a small bridge for spanning any width
ure 8x12 inches, the roadway 3x8 inches up to 25 feet. Readers will perceive that
FIG. 57.
and the guide pieces 5x8 inches ; the guard this form of bridge is constructed on th<
rails for the bridge can be made up of Howe truss, and very strong bridges can
FIG. 58.
diagonal or some other simple pattern, but be built by increasing the depth or distance
they should be well braced from the under between the upper and lower chords. It
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
will t>2 understood tint the sizes of the up by this method, thus leaving the entire
timbers must be increased in proportion covered space underneath free from col-
FIG. 59 — SIMPLE TRUSSED BRIDGES.
with the increase of each foot of span in umns or supporting posts. For roofs of
order to resist the strain placed thereon. short span, shingled or slated, the trusses
FIG 60.
Fig. 59 shows another form of simple seen in the engravings can be readily
trussing for a span not to exceed 25 feet, adopted.
FIG. 6 1 — LATTICE TKUSSINGS.
Fig. 60 is a simple form for a span not to
exceed 15 feet.
Fig. 6 1 represents a very simple form of
diagonal lattice trussing, by means of which
a very cheap and serviceable bridge may
be built for spans of 20 feet, but the writer
would not recommend bridges to be built
of this kind, as the limits of nailing and the
sizes of the timber prevent the adoption of
this method. For flat roofs the diagonal
lattice can be used or on barns or long
buildings bridge girders can be built
CHAPTER XV.
How TO FRAME A LOG CABIN.
Having been particularly impressed with
the picturesque beauty and constructive
stability of the log cabin or "slab house,"
I have in this chapter evolved some details
concerning them which will be found of
value to all mechanics.
At Fig. 62, I place before the reader an
isometiical drawing of a " slab " or half log-
house, showing two sides and the roof.
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
FIG. 62 — A SLAB LOG CABIN WITH SLABS HALVED TOGETHER,
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
53
The slabs consist of one-half logs or out-
side slabs of trees with the bark left on.
Each slab has a straight face and parallel
straightened edges, and at the corners they
are halved together, as seen at Fig. 63. The
round side is mitered so as to form a close
joint, and continue, as far as possible, the
round outline of the timber. Short blocks
may be fitted to the outside ends to make
it appear as if the whole round tree was in
the house. This construction makes a
very excellent house without resorting to
the expedient of patching, and makes an
artistic dwelling by hollowing out the ends,
which will require to be extremely well
done or the joints will show and spoil the
appearance of the house.
A log house framed by this method,
which only entails the splitting of the tree
in two halves with the saw, makes a very
healthy house, as it gives a comparatively
smooth surface inside and makes close
joints, thus making the interior very com-
fortable, and it can be made more so by
furring the half logs vertically and ceiling
inside with 5A or %$ inch match boards
og house to the halved and mitred joint I
illustrate in Fig. 64. Here are shown two
FIG. 63 — SLABS HALVED TOGETHER.
laying them horizontally from the floor up.
If, however, the builder should be out in
the woods, far away from the valuable aid
of the steam saw mill, he can frame his
FIG. 64 — METHOD OF FRAMING WHOLE
LOGS TOGETHER BY HALVING.
trees of about equal average diameter, sized
down to parallel straight edges and halved
and mitred to a close joint. These mitres
and halves may be sawn or chiselled out
and will make a very strong solid wall
without much labor, if straight young trees
,can be procured for the job. The principal
labor consists in getting the straight joints.
These walls can be put together without
nails. , . .
At the rear of Fig. 62, will be seen the
simplest way oi building a house of this
description, which consists of simply cut-
ting, fitting and abutting the ends of the
slabs forming one end, against the straight
inside faces of the side. This construction
will be very well where the end is not seen
as in the engraving, but where it is the ap-
pearance is not good, though much time is
saved. A handy and intelligent mechanic,
of resource, and a good fitter, can make a
very handsome house, by using any of the
foregoing forms of construction. If it be
possible each tier of slab or logs might be
the same width all round the building, so
as to avoid patching. If any piecing is to
54
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
be done, it .should be at the top, or some
place where it will not be visible.
Regarding the roof, I would state that
it is best composed of half logs or slabs
with grooved strips nailed under the joints,
as represented in sketch Fig. 65, thus making
the roof practically water t'ght. The roof
FIG. 65 — ROOF SLABS WITH GROOVED
STRIPS UNDER JOINTS.
should have long, overhanging eaves or
cornices, and a comb well overhung at the
ridge line. The roof will, of course, re-
q lire more careful workmanship and fitting
than the side walls In conclusion, it may
be said that almost any skilled carpenter
may thus build himself an excellent shop,
SLAB PANELING.
shed or dwelling in any locality where the
timber is available, at the expense of only
the labor involved in handling and raising
the different pieces.
One of the important things I would
urge on all mechanics is to study out their
work and arrange a mental plan of pro-
cedure before laying out work or com-
mencing to use the tools. Deliberation
and method will always mean a successful
mechanical conclusion.
To illustrate this, I would state that in
framing small houses, costing from $i,OOO
and up, I find that most foremen in their
balloon framing take the measurements
off the plans and push up the beams and
striding without making any provision for
the windows and doors ; especially is this
the case where bay windows occur. The
result is there is a lot of cutting out, and
nailing in, of studding when the frame is
raised and ready for the sheathing. Per-
sonally, I believe in the foreman going
ahead and laying out the entire stuff for
the beams, sills, walls, partitions, plates,
etc., before the men arrive on the ground
and commence work. If he be a careful
and capable mechanic, with an accurate
head-piece — a knowledge of plans and fa-
miliar with the use of the steel square, he
should be able to cut out his stuff on the
ground so that it can be nailed in position
exactly where required, thus saving time,
money, and much vexation going over
work twice.
All pieces of framing should be marked
with their name and position when framed,
so that they be readily picked out when
required, as sill, west-side, wall-plate, north
bay, collar-beams, etc, giving each piece
its proper name and position. By doing
this, the carpenters on a job will be able,
in the absence of the foreman, to pick out
the stuff and nail it in position.
Some of the best mechanics, I find, take
the plans home and make a framing out-
line plan of each floor, wall, partition, roof
HOW TO FRAME A HOUSE.
55
etc., and mark on each line the exact length
to lay out and frame each piece, thus
making sure their measurements will be
correct. This can be done to i ^ or 3-4
scale with an ordinary two-foot carpenter's
rule, and is a positive way of obtaining ac-
curate measurements when laying out.
Above all, let me warn carpenters who
lead or are in charge, to avoid too much
rushing, as it must of necessity mean mis-
takes or the loss of a job.
One of the most prevalent omissions
which is to be found in new work is that
of omitting to set the water table before
commencing to clapboard and simply put-
ting on the bottom course and continuing
up. This is a very deleterious practice
and should never be permitted by go< d
mechanics. In every case the water table
should be set and levelled all round the
house the very first thing, and, if possible,
well painted, then the corner boards nailed
together and set up and finally the clap-
boards put on, with the bottom course well
beveled and fitted close to the pitch of the
water table, so as to form a water-tight
joint.
HOW TO FRAME THE TIMBERS FOR
A BRICK HOUSE. ,
CHAPTER I. By referring to Fig. I of the illustrations, •
[N WRITING this part I have endeavored readers will be enabled to obtain a very
to follow, as closely as possible, the clear example of the floors of a city house
methods of construction laid down by the or flat in course of construction There
building laws of the City of New York, as are four stories, supposed to be partially
FIG. i — PROJECTED VJEW OF FRAMING OF A BKICK HOUSE.
they embody the best forms of construe- erecte ', namely — basement, first story, sec-
tion existant, and are both semi-fireproof ond story and third story. The brick party
and economical. wall, on the left, is carried up to above the
HOW TO FRAME THE TIMBERS FOR A BRICK HOUSE.
57
third floor beams, and south front is built
to the level of the second floor beams. The
first floor is fireproof; that 'is to say, it is
constructed of steel beams, filled in with
brick arches. The thrust of the arch be-
tween the beams being resisted by the
wrought iron tie rods seen in the engrav-
ing, which is an isometric section of a
corner house, placed on the northeast cor-
ner, showing. the south gable front. Fig.
2 is the projection of the framing of the
Fig. 2— Method of I Beam Construction, with
Tie Rods, Knees, and Two Different Styles of
Anchors.
first story fire-proof floor, showing how the
I beams are bolted together by knees. It
Fig. 3— A Fire-Proof Floor, with brick Arches,
Leveled up with Concrete , and Wood Strips,
Imbedded for Flooring.
also shows the tie rods, anchors and temp_
lets under the beams on the brick founda.
Fig. 4 — Hollow Terra Cotta Arch Fire-Proof
Floor, with Concrete and Wood Strips Imbedded
to Receive Flooring Nails.
tion wall. Figs. 3 and 4 show two details
of construction for filling in between the
beams.
At Fig. 5, a very inexpensive system of
setting centres for turning the brick or
terra cotta arches between I beams will be
seen. It consists of 2 inch x 4 inch or 2
inch x 6 inch spruce joists laid lengthways
on top and bottom flanges of each I beam ;
the bottom joist being hung to that on
top by means of I inch x 3 inch or I ^
inch x 4 inch spruce cleats or strips. The
curved bearers are set on the bottom strips
and nailed thereon and the battens are laid
on loose edge to edge, thus making the
centres easily removed frcm the arch, to
FIG. 5 — METHOD OF SETTING CENTRES
FOR FIREPROOF FLOORS.
the next opening, when the cement has set
sufficiently hard to allow it, by simply
wedging off the strips from the upper joist.
The writer has seen many arches turned
on this simple and cheap form of centre
and it works admirably, carrying both men
and material safely. The cleats should be
nailed opposite each other on different
sides of each beam, and be spaced about
six feet apart. Wire nails are the most re-
liable for this job.
At Fig. i it will be noticed that there is a
temporary line of stud partition placed back
of the front wall at each story. These are
inserted for the purpose of supporting the
several tiers of beams on each floor, till the
front is built up to them ; as the practice
usually is to build the side, rear and party
walls first, and then build the fronts up to
them. The reason of this is that the front
stone-setters or front bricklayers, work
much slower than the rough wall men,
and, in consequence, the temporary parti-
tions are placed by the framer, or carpen-
FIG. 6 — HEADERS AND TRIMMERS DOUBLED, ALSO FRAMING OF FLOOR BEAMS.
FIG. 7 — PROJECTED SECTION OF FOKE AND AFT STUD PARTITION AT F LOOKS.
HOW TO KRAME THE TIMBERS FOR A BRICK HOUSE.
59
ter, so that no time may be lost, or men
delayed. There is no waste timber in using
this expedient, as the studding and plates,
shown on the illustration, are used in the
inside partitions when the roof is on and
they are being set ; but great care must be
used in setting the beams level. For this
end the measurements must be carefully
made and the studding cut the exact length.
The New York building law, however, calls
for not more than two stories of any wall to
be built in advance of any other wall, so
that not more than two rows of temporary
partition should be needed. These rows of
studding should be kept back at least 3
feet from the face of the wall.
When the beams are being framed their
ends must be beveled. They are usually
3 inches thick, and must be beveled to not
less than 3 inches, or the square of their
thickness. This is also shown in Fig. I,
together with the method of anchoring the
beams to the brick walls. It will be
noticed here that in the party wall strap
anchors are used, and in the gable T an-
chors. If there be two gables, side walls,
or the beams on opposite sides of the party
wall be on different levels, then T anchors
must be inserted, and all anchors should
have the T at least 8 inches, or the thick-
ness of two courses of brick in the wall.
All wooden trimmers and headers should
not be less than one inch thicker than the
floor or roof beams of the same tier, when
the header is 4 feet or less in length ; and
when the header is more than 4 feet and
not over I 5 feet in length or span the trim-
mer and header beams shall be at least
double the thickness of the floor or roof
beams, or be made up of two beams spiked
together. All this I here illustrate at Fig.
6, which is so clear as to fully explain the
construction without further explanation.
I would state here that it is scarcely neces-
sary to bevel the roof beams, as the de-
crease of 4 inches, from a 1 2-inch to an
8 inch wall, leaves it unnecessary. All
wooden beams must be trimmed away
from all flues, not less than 8 inches from
the flue. Fireplaces must have trimmed
arches to support the hearths, 24 inches
wide, measured from the face of the chim-
ney breast. The several tiers of beams
must, of course, be anchored, as before de-
scribed, and the anchors should not be less
than 6 feet apart, or nailed on every fourth
or fifth beam, as represented, in Fig. I.
Anchors should be of wrought iron, ^ of
an inch thick and I ^ inches wide, nailed
with y± in^h nails. Beams resting on
girders may either be overlapped, the width
of the girder, or abutted, end to end, and
tied together with a double strap.
Concerning the method of anchoring. the
front wall. I show it in the engravings
FIG. 8 — SECTION OF FRONT OF STORE,
SHOWING ANCHORS, STRIPS, BEAMS, ETC.
Figs. 8 and 9. The plan of the roof, Fig.
9, shows that every tier of beams front and
rear must have, opposite each pier, hard
6o
HOW TO FRAME THE TIMBERS FOR A BRICK HOUSE.
FIG. 9 — PLAN OF FLOORS SHOWING METHOD OF ANCHORING FRONT AND REAR
WALLS TO BEAMS
wood or hard pine anchor strips (seen in
Fig. 9) dovetailed into the beams diagon-
ally, which must be inserted in at least
four beams and nailed to each, but they
must not be let in, within four feet of the
centre line of the span of the beams be-
tween the walls. The wrought-iron an-
chors are then placed as I have drawn
them in the illustration. The section of
the front. Fig. 8, will show better how the
anchors hold.
In regard to stud partitions, I would say
that, when they run across the house they
are built in the usual way with a top and
bottom plate. When longitudinally, or
fore and aft partitions, as they are usually
termed, or run directly over each other,
they have the top plate only and the bot-
tom ends of the studding passing through,
or between the floor beams and resting on
the top plate of the story below, in the
manner represented in the engraving, Fig.
7, which is a projected section of an upper
story floor, showing the floor beams and
plates and studding of afore and aft parti-
tion. When the spacing of the studding
compels that one or more studs should
rest on a beam or trimmer as the engrav-
ing shows, then, of course, it is not possi-
ble to pass them through, but they should
invariably rest on the plate below and the
space between filled in with old or broken
brick so as to make the partition semi-
fireproof. As I have previously desciibed
the methods of centering for the arches be-
tween the first story steel beams and other
details, I will close this chapter by advis-
ing all readers to study the actual con-
struction when in progress, as it is in
this way only mechanical information is
acquired.
CHAPTER II.
SECOND AND UPPER STORY BEAMS, PARTI-
TIONS AND BRIDGING.
Continuing the consideration of the meth-
ods to be followed in framing the timbers
for a brick house, I show readers at Fig.
10 the second floor plan of the floor tim-
bers for a house with a splayed or sloping
plan on the front of the house, thus neces-
sitating shortening each floor beam as they
are spaced out to the acute angle. This
HOW TO FRAME THE TIMBERS FOR A BRICK HOUSE
61
peculiar plan is caused by an avenue not they ought to hold and help to tie the
running square or at right angles to the sidewalls together. To the left of this en-
street, graving a trimmer arch will be seen to be
FIG. 10 — FRAMING PLAN OF A BRICK CITY HOUSE.
In this case the front anchor strips let
into the beams would not be necessary and
could be omitted, provided the end T-an-
chors were placed on every beam and well
nailed thereto, thus tying the walls to-
gether.
In this engraving I also give a very clear
conception of the proper way to proceed
in framing round openings, by doubling
up the trimmers and headers and hanging
the headers in stirrup or bridle irons and
framing of the tail beams. All trimmer
beams should be thoroughly anchored, and
the tail beams should also have some an-
chors. Some framers claim they are use-
less on tail beams, but I maintain that if
tail beams are well nailed to the headers
FIG. 1 1 — SECTION THROUGH
HEARTH.
FLOOR AT
62
HOW TO FRAME THE TIMBERS FOR A BRICK HOUSE.
turned with one skewback abutting against
a beveled strip nailed to the face of the
header in the manner represented at Fig.
II, which is a section taken through the
arch in the usual way, but is not usually
removed or broken out, as the material thus
saved is not worth the expense of remov-
ing it. The object of the trimmer arcli is
floor at the hearth, showing the floor to make the hearth incombusti' le, and con-
FIG. 12 — METHOD OF BRACING BKICK WALLS.
beams, trimmer arch, bridging, lathing and
flooring, also the flue, and flue linings,
which are now inserted in almost all smoke
flues. A centre is set for each trimmer
sequently the beams are not liable to catch
fire, being so far removed from the smoke
flues.
Bridging should be set about every six
HOW TO FRAME THE TIMBERS FOR A BRICK HOUSE.
feet between bearings, and if possible, for
greater stability, should start from the end
of a header or against a wall. This is also
shown in Fig. 10,
Concerning the bracing of the walls dur-
ing construction, I would state that the
usual method is to build in a piece of 2x4
joist or studding into the inside face of the
wall, about two feet below the bottom edge
of the tier of beams above, and then nail a
2x4 stud from this built in piece, to the
ful so as not to jar the wall and to break
the bond, or strain it in any way.
Another important matter I wish noted
is to make up under the ends of all floor
and roof timbers solid so as to avoid a
spring in the floois, also to do all nailing
thoroughly either in partitions or other
timber structures.
Fig. 13 shows the best method of truss-
ing or stiffening a partition so as to resist
weight above or prevent buckling. If the
FIG. 13 — A TRUSSED PARTITION.
beam on the floor below. I am opposed to
this plan, however, and would recommend
that the walls be braced from story to
story in the way I illustrate in Fig. 12 at
back of engraving. I know it is scarcely
safe for a framer to walk on, or set beams
on a green wall, or one with the brick
freshly laid, and some bracing is necessary,
but strips of wood built in a wall rot out.
However, framers and carpenters when
setting beams on walls should be very care-
partition be very high, two or three rows
should be cut in so as to increase its rigid-
ity and also act as a fire stop. If the par-
titions are to be filled in with brick they
should have the bridging or trussing pieces
set level, and the bricks laid on these
pieces.
I would now ask the reader to refer to
Fig. 14, which is a projected view of bridg-
ing seen from the floor below. In the floor
plans shown in the foregoing engravings,
64
HOW TO FRAME THE TIMBERS FOR A BRICK HOUSE.
the bridging is denoted by three parallel
lines. Here it is represented placed and
nailed to the floor beams.
Much difference of opinion exists
i
satisfactory, as the pieces are often sawn
too short or too long, and not to the exact
FIG. 14 — BRIDGING OF FLOORS AND
ROOFS.
amongst mechanics as to the proper way
to lay out each piece of bridging so as to
get it the proper length and bevels on the
edges. Some prefer to have one man hold
the long piece up while another saws each
piece to the bevel required. This, I think,
is a tedious and inaccurate method and not
i><j^^p<p<iix]gqxn^rxix!pa?gi
35<iM^^ll^l^l>^)
JO
FIG,
15 — A CROSS SECTION OF HOUSE
SHOWING BRIDGING.
FIG. 16.
HOW TO FRAME THE TIMBERS FOR A BRICK HOUSE.
bevel. I would recommend to all carpen-
ters to try the German way, that is, to strike
two parallel lines with the chalk line aero s
the top edges of the floor beams at a dis-
tance apart equal to the depth of the beams ;
if they be 8" beams, eight inches apart; if
12" beams, twelve inches apart, and so on.
Now, if the bridging be laid across from
beam to beam diagonally the exact length
and bevels will be given and the pieces
must fit, even if the beams be not equally
spaced out, and it fiequently happens they
are not. This method I illustrate at Fig.
9, by the dotted lines and the cross section
Fig. 15, where the bridging is shown
placed on each tier.
At Fig. 1 6 I show the proper method to
follow in framing trimmer and tail beams
connected with an angular header. In this
case the header is on an angle of 45 de-
grees It will be noticed the header and
trimmer are doubled and the header mor-
tised into the trimmer on one end, the
Other end resting on a brick wall. Great
care is necessary in framing headers of this
kind and they should never be set in biidle
or stirrup iron with a butt joint, as they are
liable to slip and the floor to sag as a
natural consequence. They should also be
and gain being above the centre breaking
line or neutral axis of the beam, thus form-
ing a strong joint without weakening the
header.
FIG. 17.
framed as represented in Fig 17, a method
which I believe to be the safest and most
economical existant. The ends are simply
mortised and gained together, the mortise
CHAPTER III.
FlREPROOFING WOOD FLOORS, PARTITIONS
AND DOORS.
In connection with floors I would here
draw attention to the method of semi-fire-
proofing, or deafening floors, shown at
Fig. 1 8. It consists of a series of wood
cleats or strips nailed about four inches
down on each side of the floor beams. On
these strips fa" or i" boards are placed
and nailed, so as to form a shelf or pocket
between the floor and ceiling below. These
pockets are afterwards filled in with a con-
crete made of ashes and cement, thus ren-
dering the floor both fire and sound-
proof. The writer believes, however, that
the water in the concrete is absorbed by
the pores of the wood, and after a time a
dry rot ensues which is sure to injure the
wood, so as to impair its strength and
render it unsafe. Care, then, should be
taken not to put in the concrete slimy or
very wet.
Fig. 19 illustrates the simplest modern
method in use for preventing fire from trav-
eling up from one line of lath and plaster
partition to that directly over it, above the
tier of beams. The scheme is to fill in the
spaces between the beams with brick and
mortar, in the way represented in the en-
graving, the brick being laid on the top
plate of the partition below. When it is
necessary to make a partition entirely fire-
proof, horizontal pieces of bridging are in-
serted, about two or three rows in the en-
tire height, and on these pieces the bricks
are laid, breaking joint in the bond, so as
to stiffen the whole partition. When the
66
HOW TO FRAME THE TIMBERS FOR A BRICK HOUSE.
FIG. 1 8 — METHOD OF DEAFENING FLOOR.
partition is constructed of studding set on
flat or only 2^ inches thick, the bricks
are laid on the top of each other, edge to
edge. The horizontal bridging pieces
should not be more than 3 feet apart in
the height : that is, in a 1 2 foot partition
there should be three or four spaces, in a
9-foot partition two pieces or three spaces,
and all the spaces should be a tight fit and
well toe-nailed into the studding. If there
be partitions in the cellar, and the bottom
does not rest on a brick wall, or be carried
on stone footings, then a sleeper or plate
of locust, or other hard wood, should be set
into the cellar floor, as locust will not rot.
A better plan, however, is to first concrete
the cellar, and then set the bottom plate of
the partition directly on the concrete and
cut the studs in tight. The exact length
of any stud may be found by setting the
top plate on top of the bottom plate, and
then measuring up to the ceiling with two
rods, sliding them apart till they touch
the ceiling and plates. An ^" or ^"
should be allowed for tightening. Spruce
studding is best for cellar or basement par-
titions, as hemlock is too subject to absorb
the existing dampness in the cellar and
generate early rottenness and vermin. The
same rule applies to flooring, yellow or
North Carolina pine being the best for use
in cellars.
Concerning the usual cheap method of
laying the bearers and flooring on top of
the iron I beams, forming the first story
fireproof floor, I would here state that the
common practice is to first cover the brick
arches between the beams with a comn on
HOW TO FRAME THE TIMBERS FOR A BRICK HOUSE.
67
concrete up level with the top flanges of
the I beams, and then to lay 2"x4" spruce
or hemlock diagonally across them, either
on flat or edge, tying the ends together
with cleats or over lengths of joists, and
making sure that all the ends are made up
solid so as to prevent their springing.
These joists are usually spaced 16" apart
and on them the flooring is nailed in the
usual way.
Fig. 20 represents the simplest method
of constructing a cheap fireproof door. It
is made of fa" tongued and grooved boards
\
FIG. 19 — COMMON METHOD OF FIREPROOF
PARTITIONS.
in two thicknesses, one thickness running
diagonally. The whole completed door is
covered with tin, or sheet iron on both
sides and edges, so as to render it incom-
bustible.
Furring is a term applied to wood strips,
nailed or spiked to outside brick walls, for
the purpose of nailing the plasterer's lath
and thus preventing the plaster from ab-
sorbing the inherent dampness of the wall.
These strips are generally 1x2" or 1*^5
x2^", and are nailed on vertically and
spaced out 12" or 16" as desired. The
nails are driven into the joints of the brick-
work so as to hold the furring tightly
against the face of the wall, by this means
leaving an air space between the wall and
the plaster. Carpenters should be sure in
nailing on furring that the nails draw the
furring tight to the brick work and that
they hold it firmly. The bottom edges of
the floor beams are also often furred, and
it is a very judicious practice, as it allows
the air to circulate round the beams and
prevents them generating a dry rot. The
frequent discoloration of paper on walls is
caused by the plaster being laid on the brick
wall and the heat of the room drawing the
damp through stains the paper.
Furring, therefore, should be nailed on
all outside brick walls of 12" thick or less,
so as to prevent dampness coming into the
rooms and making them unhealthy. If
FIG.
20 — How TO MAKE A FIRE-PROOF
DOOR OF WOOD.
hollow bricks be used on outside walls it
will not be necessary to put on furring, as
the plaster is spread directly on the hollow
brick, and this kind of brick makes a very
dry inside surface.
68
HOW TO FRAME THE TIMBERS FOR A BRICK HOUSE.
CHAPTER IV.
ROOFS, BULKHEADS AND FRONTS.
Concerning the construction of the roof,
I might state that the roof timbers are
usually placed as the floor timbers below,
across the house from gable to gable, with
the exception that they pitch so as to form
a gutter or gutters in the centre or rear of
the building in order to carry off the water,
snow, etc., to proper leaders. This, of
permit the ceiling to be furred down level.
The way builders generally do this is, to
hang 2x2", or 2x4" joists from the rafters
with 1x2 furring strips or scrap scantling,
spaced 16 inches on centres to accommo-
date the plasterer's lath. Of course, all open-
ings for " Scuttles," which are square open-
ings framed for in the roof, must be allowed
for, and constructed according to the
methods I have described for floor open-
ings in the preceding sections of this arti-
To
FIG. 21 — SECTION OF BULKHEAD.
course, must be done by pitching the beams
as they are spaced out, and the best method
is to set one fr nt and one on rear, and
stretch a line through so as to get a straight
roof surface. Flat roofs of the kind used
in cities and covered with tin will drain dry,
with a pitch of i or I y2 inches to the foot.
The roof beams are generally bridged and
kept up sufficiently high to give a level
ceiling on the top story under them. For
example, if the top story is 10 feet in the
clear of the ceiling, then the roof beams
are kept i'-6", or 2'-o" high, so as to
cle, and the headers, etc., properly hung in
bridle irons
Similarly, if there be, and there usually
are, any fore and aft partitions on the top
story, the top or upper-plate of these par-
titions must be against the under edges
of the rafters to support them in the middle
of the span and prevent their sagging- o
deflecting.
Regarding next the construction of bulk-
heads. I would say that these are a sort
of box or small, framed structure placed on
the roof over the stairs which lead from
I
HOW TO FRAME THE TIMBERS FOR A BRICK HOUSE.
69
the top story to the roof. I show a sec-
tion of a bulkhead at Fig. 21. It is formed
by framing an opening in the roof equal to
the area required for the stairs and required
FIG. 22 — WINDOW LINTELS.
head-room, the framing being done as in
the case of floors, namely, the trimmers
and headers being doub'ed and the headers
hung in bridle irons, on these around the
opening or well hole studding are framed
and raised with the necessary wall-plates
for tlu> roof of the bulkhead. The roof has
generally plenty of pitch and is framed for
a skylight to light the entire stairs from
the roof. There is also a door opening
allowed on one side, generally the south-
west side, to permit egress to the roof.
This method is much better in city houses
than the usual scuttle and iron ladder, be-
cause it gives easy access to the roof and
permits of its use for drying clothes, air,
etc. ; but it must be remembered that the
friction of the feet in walking is ruinous to
a tar and gravel or tin roof, and proper
gratings should be placed over the root
covering to preserve it from injury. Bulk-
head studding is filled in with brick and
covered with boards and metal to make it
fireproof, and the door is made in the way
illustrated in the last chapter.
I have now led this subject up from the
first floor to the roof, so I will here give
FIG. 22-A — ELEVATION AND PLAN OF STORE FRONT.
HOW TO FRAME THE TIMBERS FOR A BRICK HOUSE.
some general instructions about miscella-
neous details to be attended to. The car
penter or framer may be called upon to set
the window frames, and as this is a com-
paratively simple matter, I will not com-
ment upon it except to urge the absolute
necessity of getting all frames perfectly
plumb, square and out of wind, and to have
them all well braced back to the beams so
that the mason or bricklayer may not jar
them out of position. The carpenter will
also be obliged to furnish the mason with
all the wood lintels to be placed at the
back of the stone lintels he may require.
These are used to span the width of the
door or window opening and to form a
centre for the arch which is turned over
them. They are made of 3"xio" or 3"
xi 2" plank, and are beveled on the ends
as shown at Fig. 22, with 4 inches of bear-
ing on each jam. Where the front is of
iron columns and girders as seen in Fig,
22-A, it will be necessary for the carpenter
to see that screw holes are drilled and
tapped in the iron work for the purpose of
fastening the iron work thereto. The plan
and elevation shown in the engraving are
self explanatory, so that any carpenter can
understand how necessary it is to be
familiar with the modern methods of con-
structing city houses in order to be up
with the times. Another thing I would
call attention to before concluding, and
that is the methods of fire-proof floor con-
struction given in the foregoing engravings
in order that all may be thoroughly posted.
CHAPTER V.
WOOD AND IRON CONSTRUCTION.
In the beginning I would state that
wrought and cast iron and steel have al-
most entirely displaced timber as posts and
columns, and in some cases floor beams,
especially in cities and the large towns,
where stringent fire laws make their absence
conspicuous in office or warehouse build-
ings, but they are still used in dwelling
houses and flats and, in conjunction with
iron, in warehouse and factory construc-
tion. With a view therefore of giving the
carpenter and framer an insight of this
work, the following will be found of value
even if working from plans.
At Fig. 23 will be seen a very fair ex-
ample of composite construction, which
consists of cylindrical cast iron columns,
cast with bases and brackets, the latter
being used as supports or rests to carry
on the basement columns, two 1 2-inch steel
I beams bolted together and kept together
(to act as one) by cast iron separators.
The ends of these I beams are bolted to
lugs cast on the columns in the manner
seen in the side view at Fig. 23. The first
story columns, not having so much weight
to sustain as those above, are generally
made lighter in the metal and of better
design, and have in this case but one I
beam bolted to them. The sectional end
of the I beam is shown on the front view,
and the side as bolted to the column in
the end view ; timber floor beams may be
placed on these, crossing them at right
angles and spread out at 12 or 16 inch
centres, as desired, according to the weight
placed upon the floor. For ordinary stores
or warehouses sustaining a weight from 1 50
to 250 pounds per square foot, the construc-
tion here given with the columns, spaced
10 feet between centres will be sufficient;
but care should be taken to design or lay
out the work, not less than three times as
strong as is really necessary. The old
rule of making every construction — "A
little stronger than strong enough," — is
now obsolete, and every structure must be
carefully and accurately calculated, and put
together so as to be in perfect equilibrium
HOW TO FRAME THE TIMBERS EOR A BRICK HOUSE.
FIG. 23 — ELEVATIONS AND DETAILS
and free from liability of collapse. From
the above description and a close study of
Fig. 23, any intelligent mechanic will be
able to grasp the details of this form of
wood and iron construction.
Where well-holes for stairs, trap-doors,
hatchways, or skylights occur, according
to the exigency of the plan, they have the
header and side beams doubled, the headers
and tail beams being mortised, tenoned and
joggled together and hung in a bridle or
stirrup iron seen in the engraving Fig. 24.
This useful appendix in framing is a ffi',
or %", x 2" wrought iron strap so con-
structed that it hangs or hooks over the
trimmer or headers and sustains the head-
ers or tail beams so as to add to them
e CrD
WOOD AND IRON CONSTRUCTION.
additional strength to the beam. The writer
prefers not to mortise the tail or header
beams, but to simply abut them against
face of the beam and spike it solidly there-
FIG. 24- — STIRRUP IRONS.
to, believing that the stirrup is sufficiently
strong to support the beam without weak-
ening the header to which it is attached.
HOW TO FRAME THE TIMBERS FOR A BRICK HOUSE.
The illustration Fig. 25, will convey to
carpenters the method of laying sleepers
on bearers in concrete laid on top of brick
or terra cotta arches in fireproof floors.
These floors are now entirely emplo) ed in
so-called fireproof builcings, in the first
floor of flats and in engineering structures.
The 4x4 or 3x3 strips are set in the con-
crete above the level of the I beams. These
must be set level and fair with a line and
straight edge so the floor will be level.
can be clearly understood in a few minutes.
Fig. 27 is the Flitch Plate girder made up
of two or more timber beams, haxing a
plate of rolled iron or steel sandwiched be-
tween them, the whole being solidly bolted
together. This construction is not .io
economical as a steel or rolled iron I beam,
but can be employed in some cases.
I here illustrate, in Fig?. 28 and 29, the
longitudinal and transvei.ce sections of a
floor made up of timber beams, n sting on
The writer is much opposed to this
method, because even if the strips
be dovetailed and set in the wet ce-
ment concrete, where, as they dry,
they will invariably shrink and be-
come loose. To this is added their
liability to rot from absorbing the damp-
ness in the concrete. For placing these
sleepers or bearers the writer has adopted
the method represented at Fig. 26, where
they are wedged fast and, being above the
concrete, cannot rot or be affected by
shrinkage. The construction of this form
FIG. 25 — SECTION OF FIREPROOF FLOOR
AND ITS CONSTRUCTION.
the bottom plate of a girder made up of
two steel I beams with a plate under to
give a full bearing to the timbers. This
will be clearly s< en by a study of Fig. 28^
also the method of tying them together by
a 2 inch x 2 inch wrought iron strap, one
-SECTION SHOWING IVIETHOD OF
WEDGING BEARER?.
of which passes over the top of the girder
on one beam and under it on the next one,
or on every second beam, thus tying the
timbers together on each side of the girder,
HOW TO FRAME THE TIMBERS FOR A BRICK HOUSE.
73
FIG. 27 — FLITCH PLATE GIRDERS.
by being thoroughly spiked to each beam, good bearing on both ends, and bridged
The beams are fully fitted so as to have a with doub'e rows of bridging in each span.
FIG. 28 — LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF FLOOR.
74
HOW TO FRAME THE TIMBERS FOR A BRICK HOUSE.
FIG. 29 — TRANSVERSE SECTION OF FLOOR.
CHAPTER VI.
HEAVY BEAMS AND GIRDERS AND RAISING
SAME.
As the framing details of heavy modern
construction have never yet been properly
considered, I will in this chapter convey to
carpenters and builders some information
which they will find of the greatest value
in their practice. We will assume that the
Figs. 28 and 29 is requisite fora large five-
story stable or warehouse to be capable of
sustaining a safe bearing load of from 200
to 250 pounds to the square foot. It will
be necessary that the timbers be large and
of superior timber, presumably of yellow
pine, which is the best and most easily ob-
tained in the modern market. The timber
bill will also be large and should be very
carefully compiled from the plans and speci-
fications so as to get all the pieces on the
job. To this end a list should be made out,
each item being under a separate heading
HOW TO FRAME THE TIMBERS FOR A BRICK HOUSE.
75
with the quantities required for each length,
etc., as
Girders,
Posts,
Floor Beams,
Roof,
Braces,
Studding.
With this list and a framing plan any
skilled carpenter or framer may lay out(
frame or raise the timbers for a heavy job.
I would state here that the framing plan
should be furnished by the architect, and it
usually is a plan of each story with the
girders and floor beams, the headers, trim-
mers, etc., shown on it so that it is a map
or diagram of each timber required and an
invaluable guide to the foreman mechanic.
In regard to the actual framing of the tim-
bers there is little to be said which I have
not already described, with the exception
that the form of construction should be
stronger than those previously published,
and for the instruction of readers I now
show them why. Fig. 30 will give an idea
i-iG. 30 — A TUSK TENON.
of a stronger form of tenon and mortise for
3"xio", 3"xi2", or 3'xi4" or 16" floor,
tail and header beams where bridle irons
are not used, and care should be taken to
have the tenon and mortise above the neu-
tral axis of the timber as shown in the
sketch by the dotted line. This " tusk "
tenon gives great strength and may be
used with advantage on 3", 4" or 6" floor
or roof timbers, where there is a short
header as that framed around a chimney ;
but if the header be over six feet long, I
would recommend that the tenon be omit-
ted entirely, and each tail or header beam
hung in bridle irons, as I described in a
previous chapter.
A word more in regard to main support-
ing girders Recent experience has shown
me that the best way to join them over
columns is to simply abut them together,
end to end, and insert double end T anchors
to tie them together, or, if the bearing sur-
face be not large to halve them with a sim-
ple half, as in the case of a sill or plate.
The form of construction, which I illustrate
at Fig. 31, will explain my preference, as
1
1 j .-}-— \
FIG. 31 — FRAMING OF A GIRDER AROUND
AN IRON COLUMN.
it will be seen there that the girder has
its ends of the two lengths mortised out to
fit one of the sleeves of the columns, there-
by weakening its strength where it is most
needed, but it had to be done here for the
reason that the vertical line of cast-iron
columns rested on each other from story
to story, the whole being carried by a
heavy brick pier in the cellar. A halved
HOW TO FRAME THE TIMBERS FOR A BRICK HOUSE.
horizontal joint with cast-iron or oak
dowels inserted in its inside face is, where
possible, the best for girders.
Similarly with wooden posts or columns
of any dimensions, of more than 24 square
inches of area on top and bottom ends, the
mechanic will invariably find that the best
construction is to cut them squaie (bare
foot) and insert two or three dowels to keep
them from slipping sideways. I may here
say that architects are realizing that the
mortise and tenon system sacrifices the
strength of the piece mortised to that of the
piece tenoned in constructive framing, and
are equalizing the loss by the adoption of
the dowel which the mediaeval and ancient
framers used with the greatest success.
Regarding the raising of heavy beams
and girders, I would state that this opera-
tion demands apparatus, and also skill on
the part of the framer. The apparatus or
appliances can be readily made of wood,
and are indispensable for the safe handling
of timbers too unwieldy to be lifted by
hand. The first and most important are
the ordinary rollers which, being placed on
inclined planes of planks or beams, enable
the mechanics to roll up heavy beams or
girders on the first floors from which they
are hoisted to the upper floors. These
rollers should not be less than from 4 to 6
inches in diameter, and be of oak, maple or
some other hard timber not liable to crush,
bruise or splinter. They may be of any
handy length, say from 2 to 4 feet long, so
as to be easily handled. A very excelle/'t
roller for use on the floor beams is that
shown in the engraving Fig. 32. As will
be seen, it is simply a roller set in a frame,
so that the frame spans three or four floor
beams, and heavy timbers can be rolled on
it with greater ease than with a common
roller on planks. The use of rollers is, as
the reader will understand, of the greatest
necessity where timbers weighing from 600
to 2,500 pounds ha\ e to be moved on floor
beams freshly set in gretn brick walls.
When the timbers are on the floor they
will next be raised or hoisted into position,
and this may be very conveniently done
with the aid of the improvised derrick icp-
resented at Fig 33. It is made up of a T
FJG. 32 — ROLLER FOR USE ON FLOOR
BFAMS.
sole or base formed of two 3">8" or 3"x
10,' timbers bolted together, and on these
are raised two uprights or standards of 2x
4 or 2x6 spruce joists slightly pitched for-
ward. To these, two braces are bolted
from the shank c f the T to the top. On
the uprights a windlass with a pawl and
ratchet is bolted. With the usual block and
tackle lashed to the top end of this derrick
and the addition of ' guv " ropes, almost
any heavy timber girder may be safely
raised. If the mechanic is afraid his up-
rights might buckle under the strain of the
weight, he can nail horizontal cleats across
their edges, spacing out the cleats 12 or 14
inches apart, so as to form a ladder to get
up and make fast the guys or blocks and
tackle.
A very important matter which the framer
should guard against in raising and placing
heavy timbers on a new building is, to
avoid jarring the green walls by handling
the timbers too roughly. This must be
especially guarded against on the upper
stories, and the girders and wooden or iron
columns or posts must be securely braced,
HOW TO FRAME THE TIMBERS FOR A BRICK HOUSE.
77
both transversely and longitudinally, before
commencing to place the floor timbers.
When there is a wide unsupported span of
FIG. 33 — AN IMPROVISED TIMBER
DERRICK.
timber, s y over twenty feet, a temporary
top and bottom plate and a few good studs
should be placed under the centre of the
span, to prevent their springing when
weighted and thus avoid jarring the walls.
I am very much opposed to the practice of
omitting timbers or series of timbers, leav-
ing them out for the purpose of leaving
wells for hod-hoisters or such like purpose,
as I believe such omissions leave weak spots
in the brick walls, as they need to be thor-
oughly tied when freshly laid or green
All straps, irons and ties, and anchors
should be put in as soon as the timbers are
placed, and be very carefully fitted and
thoroughly nailed in order to avoid the
possibility of a high wind or any other strain
pulling them apart. If the anchors should
not be on the job then temporary hardwood
straps may be nailed on, but they are only
a makeshift and should be done without by
ordering the irons early. To omit putting
the strap anchors on the longitudinal gird-
ers is a criminal proceeding, especially on
a high building or when the girders have
a square butt joint. In conclusion I can't
say too much to carpenters, about taking
the greatest care in the details of their
heavy framing, so as to avoid all danger
of collapses or accidents, which are full of
menace to" the lives of mechanics and mean
loss of reputation and money to all inter-
ested. In order to explain what precedes,
the following will be useful to those who
do heavy framing or work on city house
framing. They are most economical and
any foreman will have no difficulty in lay-
ing them provided he be careful in measur-
ing. The sketch, Fig. 34, illustrates the
\ '
\'
FIG. 34 — A STKAP ANCHOR NAILED ON.
proper method of tying flo >r beams end to
end where they rest on a party or inter-
mediate wall. It simply consists of a ^
inch by i J/£ inch wrought iron strap tie or
" strap anclior" as some mechanics term it,
with holes for inserting nails. This is
usually nailed on every fourth or fifth pair
of beams thus tying the houses together
on every tier and increasing the strength
HOW TO FRAME THE TIMBERS FOR A BRICK HOUSE.
of the brick walls which would naturally
fall under lateral pressure such as wind or
strain were each not anchored or tied to
that opposite. In some cases the ends of
the floor beams are beveled, as seen by the
dotted lines in the illustration. This is
done so that in case a fire occurs and the
beam falls, it will fall clear, without acting
as a lever to overturn the wall above it.
The next illustration, Fig. 35, is a very
excellent and economical way to join two
abutting girders end to end so as to form a
E
(0
T
FIG. 35 — A DOUBLE T STRAP ANCHOR.
continuous girder. It is made the same
way as the foregoing, and is of heavier
metal, usually ^ inch by 2 inches wide
with a T end, as seen in the engraving.
It is, for greater strength and in order to
get the full retaining power of the T ends,
let into the face of the beam flush and there
nailed, thus making, if one be inserted on
each side of the joint, an excellent anchor
and a very cheap method of construction
as there is no framing called for, the ends
being simply sawn square and the strap
anchor inserted and nailed.
The illustration, Fig. 36, is another eco-
nomical manner of joining girders. It
consists of the old-fashioned half or scarf
with two dowels of iron placed in holes
bored to receive them so as to prevent the
timbers forming the girders from pulling
apart. Under and over the girder a bolster
of hard wood is placed to receive the
thrusts of the posts. This makes a very
good form of tie at the joint, though the
writer prefers the strap T anchors, as there
is no liability of the joint splitting should
\
t
FIG. 36 — A HALVED AND DOWELLED
JOINT.
the walls bulge. I might state, the very
heavy wooden girder in a store or ware-
house building should have star anchors to
pass entirely through the wall and there
be tightened with a nut.
Let us here, in connection with framing
of heavy timbers, impress on every carpen-
ter the importance of being familiar with
the proper knots for tying and fastening
his ropes to the timbers when lifting them
up. As I have seen in many journals some
unusal knots which, to my mind, are not
reliable unless made by a sailor, rigger, or
some one thoroughly accustomed to ropes,
I would recommend carpenters to stick to
the simple timber hitch, which is made by
passing the rope once around the timber»
taking one turn on the rope and twisting
it as seen in the sketch, Fig. 37. If it be
necessary to lengthen a rope or join two
pieces' end, the simple reef knot shown at
HOW TO FRAME THE TIMBERS FOR A BRICK HOUSE.
79
FIG. 37.
Fig. 38, may be used, but all knots should
be absolutely certain and sure to hold to
FIG. 38.
avoid accidents. I have seen several men
killed by poor knots, and if one is not sure
he should turn the job over to some man
who can make a reliable knot.
I have been noticing lately the difference
between the ways by which various build-
ers and foremen take care of their stuff as
it comes to the job, and have been seriously
impressed with the results thereof. I find
that the usual method is to dump sawn
timber carelessly in any place close to the
job, letting the timbers lie as they fall, in
any position, without properly stacking
them, and the result is very injurious to the
material. Sawn framing timbers should be
put into piles at once, for, being green or
unseasoned, if it is piled with one timber
bearing on its fellow, the one underneath
will become twisted, will crack and warp
so as to be unfit for bearing purposes. In
stacking, if it is to lie long on the ground
strips should be placed between the ranges
so as to allow the air to circulate through
them and help seasoning.
PART III.
FRAMING ROOFS.
COPYRIGHT 1893 BY OWEN B. MAGINNIS.
INTRODUCTION.
IN COMMENCING these chapters on
the framing of difficult roofs, I do so
with the assurance that readers will find
them valuable, in being able to apply them
practically in their work and to any of the
intricate roof problems which may be
brought before them. I will endeavor to
make them as clear and comprehensible as
is possible with the subject, so that any
roof timbers may be laid out by referring
to one or other of the roofs described.
No ordinary roofs will be dealt with in
order that the chapters may cover a field
hitherto untouched by previous writers
Though the descriptions may be entirely
new, it will be necessary for me to embrace
in them the fundamental principles of
geometry which invariably contrcl all
mechanical operations.
CHAPTER I.
LAYING AND FRAMING A SIMPLE ROOF.
Let A, B, C, D, Fig. i, be the plan of
the wall plates. A D a gabled* end, and
B C a hipped end of the building, which is
to be framed and raised as represented at
Fig. 1 6, for the hipped end, and Fig. 7 for
the gabled end. The roof is I 2 feet wide
to the outside faces of the wall, and the
rise or pitch 4 feet or one-third the span.
The dotted lines denote centre lines.
To lay out the gable end produce the
centre line of the ridge E, I, F to G, and
from F measure up 4 feet, join G, A and
FIG i — PLAN AND LAYOUT OF A SIMPLE Rooi
FRAMING ROOFS.
81
G, D. Now set off on each side of the
dotted line shown, the width of the rafter, 2
inches on each side for a 4-inch rafter, and
3 inches on each side for a 6-inch rafter as
shown on the top of Fig. i, deduct half the
thickness of the ridge, half inch, from each
rafter peak, cut also notch out for the cut
on the plate. All the rafters from F to E
will be framed thus.
For the hip rafters, take the distance B,
C, and transfer it to J, K, divide it into
two parts 6 feet at L, and square up as L.
lengths of the jacks will be to the line O,
P, R, K, and their side level will be as P.
The bottom notch will, of course, be as at
A or D ; K shows the bottom notch for
the hip rafters and N the peak cut.
CHAPTER II.
HIP AND VALLEY ROOFS.
The first roof which I produce is one ot
the hip and valley class, or a main rec-
FIG. 2.
M, O. Join M, J, and M, K. Produce
J, M, to N, (dotted line,) and join N, K.
N, K, will be the centre line length of the
hip, and the width may now be set off on
each side of it in the manner shown in the
diagram.
With K as centre and K, N as radius,
strike the arc N, O, cutting L, M extended
in O. On L, K lay off the jack rafter as
Q, P, S, R, etr. ; equally spaced and square
to the wall plate (not askew as I have
drawn one jack in Fig, i). The exact
tangular building with an L or addition.
A, B, C, F, D, Fig. 2, is the plan of the
building and the outside line of the wall
plates. The roof is of half pitch or square
pitch, as some mechanics call it, which
means the height of the roof is equal to
half the width of the house. The house
has two gables, one on each end of the
main part with a hip on the L, and the
intersection of the L roof with the main
roof produces two valleys. E, I, D, is the
plan of the hip, and E, I, D, is the eleva-
82
FRAMING ROOFS.
tion of it shown on the elevation below,
Fig. 3, where the general view of the con-
structed roof is shown. Q, J and J, F are
the valleys on the plan.
FIG. 3.
In framing this roof, the simplest way is
as follows :
To obtain lengths and bevels of the com-
mon rafter, produce the ridge line G, J, H?
to L and K. Join A, K and K, Q ; also
B, L and L, C. -A, K will be the neat
length of the common rafter, if no ridge
board is inserted, but if there be a ridge
board, half its thickness must be sawn off
the length on the bevel for the cut on the
plate. Any ordinary mind will see the
simplicity of this method.
For the hip rafters which will stand over
the seats E, I, and D, I, produce the line
D, I, to M, and set off on it the height of
the pitch, I, M, equal to K, G. Join M,
E ; M, E, will be the exact length of the
hip rafter required, and the bevel at M,
will fit the top cut. In regard to the cuts
for the jack rafters, which run up the hips
and valleys, it might be said that the top
cuts against the ridges for the rafters which
run up the valleys, have the top cut same
as the common rafter top cut. The bot-
tom one which nails against can be readily
determined by the following simple meth-
od : Produce the ridge line J, I, to N,
and make D, N, and N, E, equal to M, E,
the length of the hip. W, is the jack on
its seat or as it will appear in position. X,
is the exact length of it from the plate line
to the hip, and the bevel at X, will be the
exact bevel for all jacks both on hips and
valleys, being reversed for different sides,
right and left hand.
The plumb cut of the jacks will be half
pitch, or on the steel square, 12 and 12.
In order to prove the exactness of this
method of laying out such a roof, we will
proceed to develop its planes or side?.
As the rectangular plane, A, B, G, H,
take a pair of compasses with a pencil
point, and with A, as a centre, and with
A, K, radius, describe the arc K, I ; draw
I, U, parallel to A. B, produce G, A, to I,
and H, B, to U, this will give A, B, U, I,
the exact covering of A, G, H, B, on the
pitch C, K ; A K, being the length of the
common rafter with its necessary bevels.
For the plane J, H, C, F, produce B, L,
to G', and draw C, F, Q, parallel to B, L,
J, G'. Make L, J, G', equal to H, J, G.
C, F, equal to C, F, also F', Q', equal to
Q, F, make J, F, and J, Q, equal to M, E,
which will complete the plane or surface
to cover G, J, H, C, F, Q, on the plan.
For the plane J, F. D, I. take D, as
centre, with D, F, radius, and describe the
quarter circle F, P. Produce E, D, to P,
and through P draw P, O, parallel to D,
N, also through N draw N, O, parallel to
D, P. D, N, O, P, will be the developed
covering, and Q, R, S, E, is similarly
found.
B, L, C, and A, K, Q, are the gables.
Now if this roof be laid out on a piece
of thin wood or stiff bristol board the roof
can be folded over by cutting entirely
through the following lines : Cut from K
to A, A to I, I to U, U to B, B to I, I to
G', Q' to J', J' to F', F to C, C to F, F to
D, D to P, P to O, O to N, N to E, E to
S, S to R, and R to Q. Also make a slit
half way through the thickness of the
board, from Q to A, A to B, B to C, C to
FRAMING ROOFS.
I, D to N, D to E, and E to Q. By fold- deck is formed on the top, or, more prop-
ing the sides or planes over, the exact roof erly, two ridges are needed, one for each
will be seen, thereby proving the exacti-
tude of the methods used. This plan will
be the base or plates. ,
CHAPTER III.'
ROOFS OF IRREGULAR PLAN.
This roof is of another and rather un-
common plan, and one which will be in-
FIG. 5.
side, and parallel to each wall plate ; these
are shown as E, F, and E, G.
FIG. 4.
teresting to work out. It is a form of roof
which sometimes occurs and will prove
useful.
A, B, C, D, is the plan, Fig. 4, and it
will be noticed that the side walls are not
parallel, or at equal distance apart from
end to end, but spread or widen out from
A to B, and from C to D, or B, D, is
longer than A, C. Similarly A, B, is
longer than C, D, and not parallel to C, D.
For this reason, coupled with the necessity
•of keeping the ridge level on both sides a
The seats of the hips as A, E, C, E, B(
F, and D, G, are found by bisecting each
of the separate angles on the plan, which
can be done by taking any two points
equidistant from the apex of the angle as
A, and striking intersecting arcs. (As
every carpenter knows how to do this, I
will not illustrate it here.) This process
will give the seats of the hips as shown and
lettered/with the addition of a short piece
of ridge F, G.
To find the lengths and bevels of the
84
FRAMING ROOFS.
rafters, proceed as follows : For the com-
mon rafters to range from U, E to V, F,
on the one side, and from E, W to G, X,
on the other side ; raise up the pitch G, P.
Square out from G to X, and join P X>
which joining line will be the exact length
of the common rafter from outer edge of
plate to centre line of ridge. To obtain
length of hip rafters square up from each
point at the peaks, as E, H, F, I, on one
side. Make E, H and F, I, each equal to
G, P ; A, H and B, I will be the lengths of
the hip rafters, which will rise over A, E
and B, F. The hip rafters, which will be
set up over the seats C, E and D, G, are
determined in a similar manner. The top
and bottom bevels delineated at the peaks
and bottoms are the top and bottom cuts
of each, and it will be noticed that no two
bevels are alike, so that each rafter must be
carefully laid out and marked for each par-
ticular corner. There will be four hips of
different lengths and with different bevels,
so they must be properly framed. In re-
gard to the jack rafters, they are shown on
the right side spaced out on the wall plate
from X to D, against the hip, G, D. Their
top down bevel or plumb cut will be the
side bevel. Similarly with those from D
to M, the plumb cut will be the same as P,
but the bevel will be that at O.
In order to develop the planes of this
roof, commence by drawing E, U, S, from
E, through W, at right angles to E, F, or
A, B ; also draw F, V, T parallel to E, U,
S. Make A, S, equal to A, H by taking
A as centre with radius A, H, and striking
the arc H, S. Thiough S, draw S, T,
parallel to A B. If a centre betaken at B,
and an arc struck as I, T, N, it will be
found that the arc will pass through T, or
F, V, produced at T. The surface A, S,
T, B, will cover the plan A, E, F, B, on
the pitch E, H.
Draw E, J, square to A, C, and produce
to K. Sweep H, S, to K, and join A, K,
and K, C. A, K, C, will be the covering
plane which will cover over A, E, C, on
plan. For the plane of A, E, G, D, draw
E, W, square to E, G, and produce to Q.
With C as centre and C, K, as radius,
strike the arc K, Q ; draw Q, R, parallel to
C, D. Join- C, Q, which will be the centre
of the hip rafter on this side. Draw G, X,
square to C, D, and produce to R ; join R,
D, C, Q, R, D, will be the covering plane
which v\ill cover over C, E, G, D, on the
pitch G, P.
Now draw G, M, and F, L, square to B,
D, and produce them to N and O. With
D as centre and D, R, as radius, describe
the arc R, O, also the T, N. Join N, O,
B, N, O, D, will be the covering of the
plan B, F, G, D, on the pitch G, P. Q,
R, Y, Z, will be the covering or deck,
being the same size or area as E, F, G.
Above the plan and lay out of the roof
will be seen the elevation, or as it will ap-
pear when framed, raised and covered.
A model can be made of this roof by
cutting out the entire outside outline of the
covering and making a slit from A to B,
from B to D, from D to C, from C to A,
also from Q to R, which being folded up
will show the completed roof with the
rafters, cuts and bevels in position.
CHAPTER IV.
PYRAMIDAL ROOFS.
Roof framing is a study well worth the
attention of every carpenter. The roof
illustrated and described in this chapter is
one which occurs on many houses and
cottages now-a-days. It is one of a kind
of tower roofs on a square plan, or as they
are sometimes termed "Pyramidal Roofs."
A, C, D, F. Fig. 6, is the projection of the
roof completed, A, C, D, B, Fig. 7, the
FRAMING ROOFS.
plan of the roof on the plates ; AE, CE,
DE and BE, being the hips which form
FIG. 6.
the shape of the roof or seats over AF,
CF, DF, on Fig. 6, stand. The fourth hip
over BE, cannot be seen on the projection,
Fig. 6.
In order to find the length of the hips,
produce the line E, B, indefinitely. Now
set off measuring from E, the height of the
peak to F, Fig. 6. Join AF, which will be
the exact length of either of the four hips.
In framing this roof it is best to let two
opposite hips, as BE, and EC, on the same
line abut against each other at the peak,
and to cut off their thickness from the
other two top or peak cuts, thus : If BE,
and EC, be each 2 inches thick, then i inch
will be cut off the peak cuts of AE, and
DE, which rest against them at E. This
is done in the same manner as every top
cut of a rafter resting against a ridge must
have half the thickness of the ridge cut
from each rafter. The bevel at F, Fig. 7,
is the bevel of all four top cuts and that at
FIG. 7.
86
FRAMING ROOFS.
A, the bevel for the cuts on the plate.
Concerning the jack rafters, the best way
to determine their length is to set them off
the plate as from A, to C, Fig. 7, then to
draw a line as H, E, G, through E, parallel
to AC, or BD. With A as centre and
AF, as radius describe the arc FG, cutting
the H, E, G, at G. Join G, A, and G, B,
The triangle, or more properly speaking,
the triangular surface G, A, B, will be the
txact covering surface of the roof plane A,
E, B.
From where the jack rafters come against
the hip AE, draw lines parallel to E, G,
and square to A, B, cutting A, G, as shown.
The lines reaching from the plan line A,
B, to A, G, will be the exact jack rafters
and the bevel at K, will be the side cut
against the hip, with the bevel at F, as the
vertical cut, and that at K, the bottom or
plate cut
The development of the covering for the
remaining three planes of the roof is found
by drawing the line I, J, through E, paral-
lel to A, B, or C, D, then with B, as centre
and B, G, as radius intersecting E, J, at J,
and joining J, B, and J, D ; a similar pro-
cess can be gone through to determine the
points H and I, thus obtaining the four
convexing planes.
To prove the accuracy of this and the
two previous roof problems before dscribed,
or in fact any roof problem, the plan should
invariably be laid out to a scale, say i y2
inches to one foot. On a sheet of card-
board y? inch scale will do if the roof be
very large, then to make a cardboard
model. Here this can be done, and when
the lines have been laid down, as just de-
scribed, the entire model may be made as
follows : With a sharp pocket-knife cut
clean through the cardboard from A to G,
from G to B, from B to J, from J to D,
from D to H, from H to C, from C to I,
and from I to A. Next make a slit half-
way through the cardboard from A to B,
from B to D, from D to C, and from C to
A. Proceed to fold the planes over the
seats till they all join at the edges, thereby
making a completed cardboard roof re-
sembling Fig. 6, with the jacks and bevels
in position, and with all the cuts fitting as
they ought to.
CHAPTER V.
HEXAGONAL ROOFS.
Carpenters will see at Fig. 8 the top an<
side vie.vs of a hexagonal or six-sided
tower roof, or one which has a wall plate
I
FIG. 8.
running round on six walls as shown, the
dotted lines representing the angle lines of
FRAMING ROOFS.
the hexagonal figure. The completed roof
with the tin or shingle on, will appear as
shown on the lower sketch.
In order to frame this roof the following
system should be used :
G, as G, J. Lay off also to the same scale'
the exact height in feet of the pitch or rise
of the roof from G, to J, and join J, E,
which line will be the exact length of the
hip rafter as seen in the diagram with the
At Fig. 9 proceed to lay out on a board top and bottom bevels necessary for the
\
\
to a scale of I ^ or 3 inches to the foot,
the plan of the wall plates (on the outside
line) A, B, C, D, E, F ; and join the inter-
sections of the sides, as A, D, B, E, and C,
F ; passing through the centre G. This
gives the seats of the hip rafters A G, B G,
C G, D G, E G, and F G, six in all To
find their exact length, square up from E,
cuts, these being given at once without any
uncertainty.
To find the length of the common rafter,
to stand over, H, G, set off the pitch G, I,
on G, C, equal to G J, and join H, I, for
the length. This rafter is rarely used on
roofs of this class, except when they are of
large area, as only the jacks are requisite,
88
FRAMING ROOFS.
especially on modern frame houses where
they seldom exceed eight feet in width,
thus requiring short rafters.
To develop this roof take a pair of com-
passes, and with E, as centre, and radius
E, J, describe the arc J, M, L, cutting H,
C, produced in L. Join E, L, and D, L,
which will give the triangle E, L, D, the
covering over the plan E, G, D, on the
pitch or rise G, J. Bisect or rather divide
E, F, into two parts at Q. Square up
from Q, cutting the arc J, M, L, at M.
Join M, E, and M, F. The triangle E, M,
F, will lie over E, G, F. The remaining
four triangular developments or coverings
can be laid out from the foregoing by
making J, O, H, K, R, N, and S, P, equal in
length to Q, M, or a simpler method would
be to take G, as centre with G, M, as
radius and describe short arcs cutting O,
K, N, and P, thus giving the exact lengths
at one sweep, and insuring their being
alike so as to meet at the centre G, when
folded.
The side bevel at K, will make the top
cuts on the jack rafters fitting against the
hips, the bottom cuts fitting on the plates
being the bevel at H.
Almost every mechanic knows how a
hexagon or six-sided figure is struck out,
still in case there should be even one stu-
dent who is at sea in regard to it, I re-
peat the method of doing so here. The
diameter or length from angle to angle is
usually given, or, if not, is easily found by
joining the angles aa before described.
Now, to lay out any hexagon, draw any
line as F, C, and divide it into two equal
parts at G. With G, centre and radius G,
F, strike the circle A, B, C, D, E, F. Now
take a pair of dividers (sharp points on
both legs) and from C, with one point on
C, space out the six distances C, B, B, H,
A, F, F, E, E, D, and D, C. Draw the lines
as shown for the outline of the hexagon.
In regard to framing an octagonal or
eight-sided roof, the same methods as have
been described above can be safely followed
with the exception of laying out the octa-
gon itself, which can be done in any of the
numerous ways now in use.
When the plan of the plate has been
laid down, the angles are joined and the
pitches raised up in the same manner as
for a hexagonal roof. Likewise with the
development of the planes. They can be
similarly found.
When cutting out the model of these
roofs (after laying the lines out on a sheet
of cardboard, should any reader care to do
so) the model can be made in this way.
With a sharp penknife or chisel cut en-
tirely through the sheet from A, to K, K,
to B, and so on around each outside line
until the piece drops out in the form of a
six-pointed star. Next make a slit through
the plan lines as A, B, B, C, etc., and pro-
ceed to fold the sides up until the points
O, K, N, P, L, and N, all meet over G,
and each hip as E, L, etc., will be in their
exact place, exactly over its seat, and the
cuts will all fit as contemplated, thus prov-
ing the accuracy of the system.
CHAPTER VI.
CONICAL OR CIRCULAR ROOFS.
Having treated the usual forms of roofs
embracing the hip and valley principles, I
will now draw the attention of my readers
to the proper laying out and framing of a
roof on a circular tower, as this form occurs
very often in modern houses, barns, etc.
The methods to be followed are very sim-
ple, so that an ordinary mechanic can easily
understand them if he only studies the
diagram and text a little.
Supposing A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, on
Fig. 10, to be the plan or plate line of the
FRAMING ROOFS.
89
roof, and O, L, the pitch or rise, it can be
laid out as follows : To be more explicit,
I will take it for granted that a carpenter
has a roof to frame with a plan A, B, etc.,
6 feet diameter, or 6 feet from C, to G, and
9 feet rise, or from O to L is nine feet.
Proceed to strike the plan A, B, etc., either
to full size or to scale. It is always better
to lay out full size if a floor or drawing
board can be found large enough to do it,
The ONE AND A HALF inch scale is
similar, but the divisions are not so handy.
For instance :
#
inches=l foot.
=6 inches.
=4
— o
The above two scales are the best work-
but if not, half size or a scale of 3 inches
or i y2 inches to the foot may be used.
The reason these are the best working
scales is because the THREE INCH SCALE
works as follows :
3 inches=l foot.
=6 inches.
=4
=2
ing scales, with the exception of the half
size proportion, which is very simple and
easily applied, thus :
6 inches= 1 foot.
5
= 10 inches.
4
= 8
3
= 6
2
= 4
1
= 2
X
- 1
JL
= A
1
FIG. i i
FRAMING ROOFS.
The foregoing scales are the best for
carpenters, either foremen or at the bench,
but, as I said above, the full size laying out
is the best. Whether the work is laid out
to scale or full size, the exact measurements
should always be marked in plain figures
on every piece.
Having struck the circle, draw centre
O
lines for the rafters A E, B F, C G, and
D, H, and set off the thickness of the rafters
as they show on the plan. Next draw any
straight line as J K, the same length as C,
G; raise up the centre HneO, L, the height
of the pitch, and join L K, which will be
the length of the rafters to stand over A I,
B I, C I, D I, E I, F I and G I, and the
top and bottom cuts will be directly given ;
as at L and J, L M, and L N, are the raft-
ers I D and I E placed in position and L
0 is the rafter E I in position. By refer-
ring to Fig. 1 1, the rafters B I, A I, and
H I will be seen at the rear of the figure.
If the roof is to be boarded vertically,
horizontal strips or sweeps will require to
be sawn out and naikd in the manner rep-
resented in both Figs. 10 and n. To do
this properly, divide the height from O to
L in Fig. I, and draw the lines representing
the sweeps as I i, 2 2, 3 3, 44, 5 5. Their
neat length, and the cuts to fit against the
sides of the rafters, may be determined by
striking out the sweeps shown on the plan,
1 i, 2 2, 3 3, 4 4, 5 5. It will be noticed
that this roof will require 8 circular pieces
for each row, or 40 sweeps in all. One
pattern will do for each sweep and the re-
maining eight needed can be marked from
each pattern.
Fig. 1 1 will convey a better idea of the
constructed roof, as this illustration repre-
sents each stud plate, rafter and sweep in
its fixed position, with the covering boards
nailed on half way round.
In order to find the exact shape and
bevels for the covering boards, a very
simple method is used, thus : Take a pair
of compasses, or a trammel rod, and with
L as centre, and LP as radius, describe the
arcs JP and KQ. Join LP and LQ, now
divide the half circle A, B, C, D, E, into
1 2 equal spaces on JP with a pair of com-
passes, and join the division marks on JP
with L. This will give 1 2 tapering boards
and the bevel at X on the plan will be the
bevel of the jointed edges. As twelve
boards will be needed for half the plan,
twenty-four will have to be cut out for the
other half, so it will be seen that if the
sweep or arch JP goes round from AB to
E, the sweep KQ will go round HKG,
etc., to E. The diminishing lines from the
point L to the line JP are the inside lines
of the joints of the boards shown also in
Fig. n.
In order to prove the rectitude of the
foregoing, a model can be made by drawing
the roof to scale on cardboard, and then
cutting out the figures from L to J, from J
to K, and from K to L. Also cut out the
figures LPS, and LQK. Now if LSK be
stood up over AEBF, etc., it will be seen
to fit over each other.
In a similar way the figure LJPwill bend
round ABCDE with the peak L over the
point I and the line JP around ABCDE.
In a like manner KQ will bend round
AHGFE, and L will lie over I, thus prov-
ing the correctness of the methods followed.
Care must be taken to allow for the inter-
vening rafters, when framing the peak cuts
of the rafters.
All my roof diagrams are laid out to a
scale as all plans are and usually must be
so that if any carpenter finds for example,
that any rafter or number of rafters rises,
say ten feet on the plan and has a run of
15, 1 8, or 20 feet as the case may be, all he
has to do is to assume every inch on the
steel square to be equal to a foot or I
inch scale, and take ten inches on the tongue
FRAMING ROOFS.
and 20 inches on the blade, the blade angle
will give the bottom cut, and the tongue
the top or peak cuts. I have followed this
simple method in working from plans and
it has never failed yet.
CHAPTER VII.
FRAMING, SHEETING AND SLATING AN EVE-
BROW WINDOW.
I here have pleasure in publishing the
proper method to be followed in doing this
job, and many may appreciate the informa-
tion as this form of attic window is becom-
ing more popular every year ; in fact, re-
placing the old fashioned dormer in low
pitched roofs or tho-e on cottages in the
Queen Anne or Colonial styles.
At Fig. 1 2, assume A B to be the length
of the window, in this case 6 feet at yz
inch scale, and the height 3 feet. Draw
the centre line D C, and the end line from
A and B, square to A B, the sill line.
Now draw the outline of the window, as A
E, B, and the sash and frame to the eye-
brow outline seen in the engraving ; at 4
foot radius.
Next proceed to Fig. 13 the section, and
draw the house rafter on its pitch, and at
the distance up from the cave of the roof
draw the sill and height of the window, 3
feet.
Assuming the eyebrow window rafters
to be concave, or hollow, strike them out
at 8 feet radius and locate the point c, Fig.
13, where the covering of the window roof
intersects the main roof. Now divide the
curve of the eyebrow into equal parts and
transfer these over to Fig. 13, as seen, and
with the 8 -feet centre and patterns, draw
the curves of the rafters according to the
number desired, that is, if the roof is
boarded across or horizontally — 3, 4, ,5 6,
7, 8, etc.. will be the curve and length of
each rafter, and be set up as they are shown
on the right side of Fig. 12. Now draw
from Fig. 13. back again to elevation, the
points where the curved rafters die into
main roof and draw up square to sill from
division points on curve. The intersecting
of these lines will give the curve C B, Fig.
1 2, which will be the shape of the valley
on the roof. If desired, the vertical rafters
can be sheeted with V2 inch pine strips,
bent round in two thicknesses, and well
nailed to each rafter and breaking joint in
each thickness. Another way to frame
this roof is to use horizontal, instead of
vertical, curved rafters, in the way shown
to the left of Fig. 12, each rafter following
the outline of the front elevation of the
window and dying into the roof as it curves
upward. In this case also the sheeting
board must be bent. Three thicknesses of
3-8 in.x2 in. pine strips, laid breaking
joint, make a reliable sheeting, and one
slating nails can be nailed to.
Regarding slating or shingling the roofs
of these windows, I would state that the
first course should follow the curvature,
and project over the front of the window
and continue horizontally up. The slates
should be very narrow and may radiate
from the valleys.
HOW TO STACK LUMBER.
All timber, especially that which is to
be used in the construction of a frame
house, should be properly piled or stacked
up adjacent to the building until the build-
ing is ready for its use. When the stuff is
dumped from the wagon it should imme-
diately be put into piles according to the
different sizes of the timbers ; for example,
all 2"x4", 2"x6," 2"x8,'J 2"xio," and so
on should be kept in separate piles ac-
cording to their lengths, as ordered in the
lumber bill, in a manner to allow the air to
FRAMING ROOFS.
93
circulate around each stick and permitting
water to fall through, without remaining
on the timbers. Piles should in every case
have blocks set under them so as to pre-
;v •
•Lu.
FIG. 12.
vent those next the ground absorbing the
dampness therefrom. If the pile be very
large, as in the case of sheathing boards, it
should pitched slightly from end to end
to permit the water to run off. Should
flooring be brought to the building before
the roof is on, it should be very carefully
stacked in layers with strips intervening
between each layer, and the top of the pile
should be carefully covered with rough
boards and over-lapping and breaking
joints in such a way as to prevent any rain
from wetting the stuff. This is absolutely
necessary if the flooring be of white pine
and kiln dried ; as, on account of the ex-
treme sensibility of the wood to dampness,
it will expand if wetted and contract again
when laid and subject to the heat of a
room. It is always best not to have floor-
ing, wainscoting and trim come to the
FIG. 13.
building until after the roof is entirely com-
pleted. The same care must be used in
stacking corner boards, clap boards and
other outside finish as applied to flooring.
The best method, however, is to have all
the outside finish primed before sending to
the job.
The following figures on the steel square
give common rafter cuts on steel square
for different pitches ; also hips and valleys.
For
pitch take 3 in. rise 12 in. level or plate
4 " 13 "
4^ " 12 "
6l " 12 "
8 " 12 "
12 " 12 "
16 " 12 "
21 " 12 "
73
Goth.
For hips and valleys substitute 1 7 inches
on level or plate for 1 2 inches.
Practical Hints for Carpenters.
THE IMPORTANCE OF ACCURATE MEASURE-
MENTS.
One of the things which is not sufficiently
considered by the majority of mechanics is
the value of measurements, and the caie
and method which should be followed in
obtaining them. Let us consider the part
they play in mechanical procedure, espe-
cially that which pertains to the practice
of carpentry and note the result.
What are measurements ? They are the
distances between points or the actual sizes
of constructions or details of constructions,
and being determined either through the
system of scale drawings or by other con-
structions already completed, must of nect s-
sity be absolutely correct to ensure success
and accuracy in all mechanical opeiations.
Now as to the best methods of obtaining
accurate measurements. In this it has
been found that the methods vary with the
dis-ances or detail to be measured, and
different details will require different meth-
ods.
I would say, that every distance must be
found exactly and by systematic means,
and for long distances, the metallic or
steel tape-line, as used by engineers and
surveyors, is most useful. In laying out
and measuring lots and sites for houses it
should be employed, or for long distances
or materials, but for materials such as tim-
bers not over 30 feet, the writer has found
the lo-foot pole the best measuring instru-
ment. This valuable tool should be thor-
oughly understood by every mechanic. It
consists of a simple pole or rod of wood,
exactly 10 lineal feet long and from i to
i *^ inches square, made of either pine or
oak.
It should be well seasoned and laid, out
absolutely accurate in feet on all four sides,
or at least two sides, commencing at oppo-
site ends. The lines should be cut in
deeply with a chisel so as to be indelible,
and the figures (Roman) thus: I, II, III,
IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, cut in deeply
with a y<i inch or y% inch chisel. By doing
this they will be permanent and not liable
to be rubbed off as they would be if laid
out in ordinary pencil marks. If made in
the above way or even out of an inch by
two strip, this tool will be found of great
value in measuring framing timbers for
houses, in laying off windows or doors,
setting out partitions, or in fact any work
outside the measuring capacity of a car-
penter's two-foot pocket rule. Especially
will it be found necessary in measuring
ronf timbers where absolute accuracy is
essential ; great care should be taken to see
that it is not broken nor less than the full
10 feet, as it would make a very serious
lessening in the entire length supposing the
pole were laid on a long stick.
To measure the distance between two
walls or in openings as framing for doors,
windows and in recesses, the best method
is to use two rods by sliding them along
until the ends touch the opposite side, thus
obtaining the exact width. If in door
openings, as for jambs and windows, the
width should be taken at the t ^p, bottom
and middle, so as to verify and approximate
the average width should there be any
variation. Similarly in regard to heights,
PRACTICAL HINTS FOR CARPENTERS.
95
as heights of doors, windows, ceilings, floor
beams, etc., the two rods are safest, as they
cannot bend, and if held with both hands
and slid apart the exact distance will be
ascertained, as it is a very simple matter
to measure the length of the rods. Two
two-foot rules are also of great utility in
inside measuring.
In conclusion, I would recommend me-
chanics to be more particular and spend
more time on the process of measuring,
and note down any peculiarities existant
in the construction and make line sketches
and remarks about same, especially \\hen
measuring up for new work.
LAYING OF FLOORING.
Concerning the laying of flooring. I
have lately noted there might be much
said on this important detail of building
construction. First, as to commencing to
lay. I would suggest that the first course
be laid perfectly straight, being composed
of perfectly straight, picked boards, and laid
to a line or straightened through from end
to end with the eye, and it should be firmly
nailed down before commencing to drive
up the second course. Second, flooring
should go together comparatively ea^y;
that is to say, the tongues and grooves
should fit snugly, but not so tight as to
necessitate bruising up all the tongues of
each succeeding board, or line of boards.
by banging it to splinters with a hammer
or axe. Third, the running joints should
be driven together tight by using a block
of hard wood and a heavy mall, so that
the flooring board will not recoil or spring
out. If it be rounding or hollow one man
should drive it to a tight joint and hold it
there while the oth^r nails it solidly to the
beam below. Fourthly, heading joints
should be absolutely tight and might be
bevelled a little under in the sawing, in
order that the lace of the board may be
tight, and no two joints should be on the
same floor beam not closer together than
the spacing of two beams apart, nor should
two joints be on any one beam with
only one through course between. There
should be always two or more between.
The heading joints should likewise be well
scattered to avoid their being conspicuous,
and not, a* is often done, all grouped in
one, two or more places. All the above
suggestions are, however, subject to modi-
fication, in order to suit the stuff, so as to
use it without waste or loss of time. All
head joints rising too high above the sur-
face of the floor must be planed off. Nail-
ing should be done carefully and without
splitting the tongues off.
A word as to the ordinary mortise and
tenon joints on framing. From close ob-
servation the writer has found that it is
necessary for a carpenter to study the
nature of his stuff closely, in order to con-
struct work of this class so that it will re-
main a level surface without warping, espe-
cially when the fiaming (as in the case of a
framed or panelled door) is suspended or
so placed as to be subject to change from
not being fixed or nailed in position, as is
wainscoting, jambs, soffits, back-linings,
etc. If, in laying out, the stuff be not con-
sidered and matched so as to warp in the
proper direction, the result will be a useless
job. To exemplify this, I would say that
very often the stiles of a door will warp
one to the inside and the other to the out-
side of the door, leaving it hopelessly in
wind, and this could be avoided in the laying
out, reversing the stiles so as they would
both work in the same direction, and thus
keep the door comparatively level. This
is, of course, entirely unnecessary in the
case of veneered doors, as I now refer to
pine and whitewood or poplar doors where
the varying grains occasion so much trouble
as to render some of the timber unfit for
96
PRACTICAL HINTS FOR CARPENTERS.
use. In fact, so much is this evident, that
the writer has often had occasion to find
that it is often more profitable and satis-
factory to make pine doors with cores and
veneer than out of the solid stuff.
How TO PUT ON HARDWARE.
Ordinary brass faced mortise locks need
nice fitting and require to be set in flush
with the door's edge and not to project if
the edge be beveled. Brass door-knobs
and escutcheons ought, in all cases, to be
covered with linen to prevent rough, sandy
hands from scoring the polished surface.
Tie the keys to the knob, or, if this be risky,
put a marked and numbered tag on each,
in order that its lock maybe readily found.
Door springs have also printed directions
which must be adhered to to insure satis-
factory working. Yale and other special
locks need special cutting, and therefore a
good mechanic to put them on right, but
the directions and sketch in the box are a
wonderful aid to novices. These locks
ought never, under any circumstances, to
be taken apart, on account of their intri-
cacy. An error of this kind once cost the
writer much expense and delay and a good
drenching bringing it to the manufacturer's
depot for readjustment.
In regard to sash locks there is little to
be said, except that they require to be on
so as to really lock the window, namely,
bind it close together at the meeting or
check-rails, besides preventing the sash
from being moved. Fasten on escutcheons
perfectly plumb and drawer-pulls level, and
try and keep the slots of the screws in a
line with the work. For instance, in escut-
cheons, finger plates, hinges and lock faces,
keep all the slots plumb, and on drawer
pulls, door pulls, or any brass or iron or
silver work, keep them level or horizontal.
English ship-joiners never put their screws
in any way but this, and it really makes
the hardware much neater, and is worth
following even at the expense of an extra
turn of the screw-driver.
The hardware of sliding doors consists
of the sheaves or rollers, the track on which
they run, the lock and fittings, and the
iron door-stop above.
For fitting in the sheaves, the main thing
is to get them in the centre of the edge, to
bring the two doors fair and to have them
project equally. The doors ought, of
course, to be fitted till the joint comes
close, and when the inside wood stop is
mortised in and cut, the two can set on the
track, which, by the way, comes in two
lengths, and the sheaves regulated till the
doors close tightly. Allow enough from
floor for carpet-saddle. The stop is let
flush into the door-head, and the lock put
on the usual way. Hardwood sliding doors
should never be made without friction
strips, to save the arises and faces of the
door surfaces.
Fanlight levers, bolts, etc., are compara-
tively simple in their application, and de-
mand little or no direction, but the great
thing to watch in putting on all hardware
is to make it fit neatly, so that it may look
well. All marking should therefore be
exact and done with a knife to insure the
piece to fit in its place and work freely
without sticking..
NAILING OF FRAMING, ETC.
Let me draw attention to the fact that
much more care than is usually evinced
might be taken by carpenters when nailing
parts of framing together, especially at the
abutting ends of studding, on the top and
bottom cuts of rafters and such like. As
a rule I find that many of the pieces are
split out by careless or insufficient nailing,
which is done so as to split or splinter off
the stuff and lessen its holding capacity.
This could easily be avoided by entering
each nail more carefully. Another thing
is to be sure and straighten all studding,
flooring, beams and roofing timbers through
from end to end, so they will be set rigid
and upright, in order to gain their utmost
strength. If any timbers be warped they
should be straightened up or bridged in
some way so they will not twist more.
The foregoing I would especially apply to
hemlock and spruce, as many pieces are
warped and need a little care.
,
.--ft I
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